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Gender differences in depression: Critical review
Open accessAbstract
Background: With few exceptions, the prevalence, incidence and morbidity risk of depressive disorders are higher in females than in males, beginning at mid-puberty and persisting through adult life. Aims: To review putative risk factors leading to gender differences in depressive disorders. Method: A critical review of the literature, dealing separately with artefactual and genuine determinants of gender differences in depressive disorders. Results: Although artefactual determinants may enhance a female preponderance to some extent, gender differences in depressive disorders are genuine. At present, adverse experiences in childhood, depression and anxiety disorders in childhood and adolescence, sociocultural roles with related adverse experiences, and psychological attributes related to vulnerability to life events and coping skills are likely to be involved. Genetic and biological factors and poor social support, however, have few or no effects in the emergence of gender differences. Conclusions: Determinants of gender differences in depressive disorders are far from being established and their combination into integrated aetiological models continues to be lacking.
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“and since depression already occurs with higher prevalence in women [7]”
From Sleep, hormones, and circadian rhythms throughout the menstrual cycle in healthy women and women with premenstrual dysphoric disorder (2010) · cites this paper as [7]
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“These prevalence estimates are considerably higher than those observed in the general population [1] and are similar to, or higher than, those observed in patients with diabetes [24], Parkinson’s disease [25] and cancer [26].”
From The prevalence of depression in rheumatoid arthritis: a systematic review and meta-analysis (2013) · cites this paper as [25]
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“Across the lifespan, women are at greater risk for experiencing depressive symptoms and disorders (Piccinelli & Wilkinson, 2000 ; Angst et al. 2009).”
Depression, anxiety and stress in primary health care users
Apóstolo, J., Figueiredo, M. H., Mendes, A. C., & Rodrígues, M. A. (2011) · Revista Latino-Americana de Enfermagem · doi:10.1590/s0104-11692011000200017 · Cited by 62
Liew, T. W., & Tan, S.-M. (2016) · Siti Hasmah Digital Library-MMU Institutiona Repository (Multimedia University) · Cited by 62
Migraine, tension-type headache, and depression among Saudi female students in Taif University
Desouky, D. E., Abu-Zaid, H., & Taha, A. A. (2019) · Journal of the Egyptian Public Health Association · doi:10.1186/s42506-019-0008-7 · Cited by 61
Tracy, M., Salo, M., Slopen, N. B., Udo, T., & Appleton, A. A. (2019) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.22887 · Cited by 68
“The incidence of depression in adolescence varies substantially by sex (Piccinelli & Wilkinson, 2000) and may be more common among girls than boys after exposure to childhood adversity (Bouma, Ormel, Verhulst, & Oldehinkel, 2008; Gallo, Munhoz, Loret de Mola, & Murray, 2018; Oldehinkel & Ormel,…”
Berardelli, I., Rogante, E., Sarubbi, S., Erbuto, D., Cifrodelli, M., Concolato, C., Pasquini, M., Lester, D., Innamorati, M., & Pompili, M. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph192013309 · Cited by 69
Tunbridge, E. M., & Harrison, P. J. (2010) · Current topics in behavioral neurosciences · doi:10.1007/7854_2010_97 · Cited by 61
“…Preece and Cairns 2003; De Vries 2004), and most psychiatric disorders show sex differences in one or more variables including incidence, age at onset, clinical features, and outcome (Lensi et al. 1996; Tamminga 1997; Piccinelli and Wilkinson 2000; Aleman et al. 2003; Baron-Cohen et al. 2005).”
Depressão: o mesmo acometimento para homens e mulheres?
Justo, L. P., & Calil, H. M. (2006) · Archives of Clinical Psychiatry (São Paulo) · doi:10.1590/s0101-60832006000200007 · Cited by 67
Sex chromosome complement regulates expression of mood-related genes
Seney, M. L., Ekong, K. I., Ding, Y., Tseng, G. C., & Sibille, E. L. (2013) · Biology of Sex Differences · doi:10.1186/2042-6410-4-20 · Cited by 62
“In addition to sex differences in prevalence and incidence of MDD, women have a higher morbidity risk than men [2].”
Madsen, I. E. H., Diderichsen, F., Burr, H., & Rugulies, R. (2010) · Scandinavian Journal of Work Environment & Health · doi:10.5271/sjweh.3049 · Cited by 61
Well-Being across the Life Course
Mirowsky, J., & Ross, C. E. (2009) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511984945.023 · Cited by 60
Meng, X., Brunet, A., Turecki, G., Liu, A., D’Arcy, C., & Caron, J. (2017) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2016-015156 · Cited by 62
“The literature reports significant differences in the determinants associated with major depressive disorder between males and females.(34) We found the same phenomenon.”
Vinter, K., Aus, K., & Arro, G. (2020) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2020.1855631 · Cited by 70
Gender differences in the psychopathology of depressed inpatients
Winkler, D., Pjrek*, E., Heiden, A. M., Wiesegger, G., Klein, N., Konstantinidis, A., & Kasper, S. F. (2004) · European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.1007/s00406-004-0471-8 · Cited by 60
Joint effect of chronic medical illness and burnout on depressive symptoms among employed adults.
Armon, G., Melamed, S., Toker, S., Berliner, S. A., & Shapira, I. (2013) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0033712 · Cited by 61
“We controlled for gender, as past studies documented gender differences in depression (Piccinelli & Wilkinson, 2000) and burnout levels (Purvanova & Muros, 2010).”
Honkalampi, K. M., Honkalampi, K. M., Hintikka, J., Haatainen, K. M., Koivumaa-Honkanen, H. T., Tanskanen, A. J., & Viinamäki, H. T. (2005) · Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/j.1440-1614.2005.01636.x · Cited by 60
Sex, gender, and vulnerability
SNOW, R. C. (2008) · Global Public Health · doi:10.1080/17441690801902619 · Cited by 65
Rappeneau, V., Blaker, A. L., Petro, J., Yamamoto, B. K., & Shimamoto, A. (2016) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2016.00231 · Cited by 60
“Major depression (MD) is a female-predominant psychiatric illness (Piccinelli and Wilkinson, 2000).”
Evidence for beneficial effects of antidepressants on suicidality in depressive patients
Möller, H. (2006) · European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.1007/s00406-006-0650-x · Cited by 60
Khalid, A., Qadir, F., Chan, S. W. Y., & Schwannauer, M. (2018) · Journal of Mental Health · doi:10.1080/09638237.2018.1521919 · Cited by 69
“…with the previous research examining prevalence rates of depression and anxiety across developmental stages of adolescence (Hoek, Van Lier, & Koot, 2012; Piccinelli & Wilkinson, 2000) but contradicts Whiteford et al. (2015) who reported a positive association between age and poor mental health.”
Saylor, R. A., Hersey, M., West, A. M., Buchanan, A. M., Berger, S. N., Nijhout, H. F., Reed, M. C., Best, J. A., & Hashemi, P. (2019) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2019.00362 · Cited by 56
“Serotonin is a well-established transmitter of interest to depression and antidepressant activity in both sexes (Piccinelli and Wilkinson, 2000; Sramek and Cutler, 2011).”
Nabi, H., Bochud, M., Glaus, J., Lasserre, A. M., Waeber, G., Vollenweider, P., & Preisig, M. (2013) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2013.04.018 · Cited by 59
“We consider this interaction to be sufficiently significant to warrant separate analyses by sex, considering the gender differences in depression and tHcy concentrations reported previously(Jacques et al., 1999; Piccinelli and Wilkinson, 2000).”
Bassett, E., & Moore, S. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0076554 · Cited by 61
Durbin, A., Moineddin, R., Lin, E. H. B., Steele, L. S., & Glazier, R. H. (2015) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2014-006690 · Cited by 58
Sexual Orientation and Psychiatric Vulnerability: A Twin Study of Neuroticism and Psychoticism
Zietsch, B. P., Verweij, K. J. H., Bailey, J. M., Wright, M. J., & Martin, N. G. (2009) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-009-9508-4 · Cited by 59
“Neuroticism (Escorial & Navas, 2007), paralleling their greater vulnerability to depression/anxiety (Leach, Christensen, Windsor, Butterworth, & Mackinnon, 2008; Piccinelli & Wilkinson, 2000 ) and eating disorders (American Psychiatric Association, 1994), while men score higher on Psychoticism (Escorial & Navas, 2007)…”
Hoggard, L. S., Byrd, C. M., & Sellers, R. M. (2015) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/cou0000069 · Cited by 67
Metadata
- Authors
- Piccinelli, M., & Wilkinson, G.
- Affiliations
- Ospedale di Circolo e Fondazione Macchi (IT)
- Royal Liverpool University Hospital (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Piccinelli, Marco
- Venue
- British Journal of Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Royal College of Psychiatrists
- Published
- 2000-12
- Volume
- 177
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 486-492
- ISSN
- 0007-1250 (ISSN-L)
- 1472-1465
- OpenAlex
- W2055218553
- Cited by
- 2,376
- References
- 76
- Citations by year
- 2026: 62 · 2025: 94 · 2024: 88 · 2023: 72 · 2022: 90 · 2021: 118 · 2020: 109 · 2019: 138 · 2018: 142 · 2017: 175 · 2016: 134 · 2015: 159 · 2014: 134 · 2013: 114 · 2012: 112
- FWCI
- 4.35
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- The British Journal of Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Keywords
- gender differences, depressive disorders, women, risk factors, childhood adversity, childhood anxiety disorders, coping strategies, life events, genetic factors, social support, etiology
- MeSH terms
- Adaptation, Psychological, Depressive Disorder, Family, Female, Humans, Male, Norepinephrine, Patient Acceptance of Health Care, Risk Factors, Serotonin, Sex Factors, Social Support, Stress, Psychological, Prevalence, Disease Progression
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