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Gender differences in depression: Critical review
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Background: With few exceptions, the prevalence, incidence and morbidity risk of depressive disorders are higher in females than in males, beginning at mid-puberty and persisting through adult life. Aims: To review putative risk factors leading to gender differences in depressive disorders. Method: A critical review of the literature, dealing separately with artefactual and genuine determinants of gender differences in depressive disorders. Results: Although artefactual determinants may enhance a female preponderance to some extent, gender differences in depressive disorders are genuine. At present, adverse experiences in childhood, depression and anxiety disorders in childhood and adolescence, sociocultural roles with related adverse experiences, and psychological attributes related to vulnerability to life events and coping skills are likely to be involved. Genetic and biological factors and poor social support, however, have few or no effects in the emergence of gender differences. Conclusions: Determinants of gender differences in depressive disorders are far from being established and their combination into integrated aetiological models continues to be lacking.
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“and since depression already occurs with higher prevalence in women [7]”
From Sleep, hormones, and circadian rhythms throughout the menstrual cycle in healthy women and women with premenstrual dysphoric disorder (2010) · cites this paper as [7]
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“These prevalence estimates are considerably higher than those observed in the general population [1] and are similar to, or higher than, those observed in patients with diabetes [24], Parkinson’s disease [25] and cancer [26].”
From The prevalence of depression in rheumatoid arthritis: a systematic review and meta-analysis (2013) · cites this paper as [25]
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Hecking, M., Bieber, B. A., Ethier, J. H., Kautzky‐Willer, A., Sunder–Plassmann, G., Säemann, M. D., Ramirez, S. P. B., Gillespie, B. W., Pisoni, R. L., Robinson, B. M., et al. (2014) · PLoS Medicine · doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001750 · Cited by 285
Gallo, E. A. G., Munhoz, T. N., Loret de Mola, C., & Murray, J. (2018) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.01.003 · Cited by 279
Gender differences in depression: the role of personality factors
Goodwin, R. D., & Gotlib, I. H. (2004) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2003.12.024 · Cited by 281
“In sum, these data provide initial evidence of reliable gender differences in personality characteristics between male and female adults in the United States population (Lewinsohn et al., 1998; Piccinelli and Wilkinson, 2000).”
Montagne, B., Kessels, R. P. C., Frigerio, E., de Haan, E. H. F., & Perrett, D. I. (2005) · Cognitive Processing · doi:10.1007/s10339-005-0050-6 · Cited by 379
“Although several possible reasons have been suggested, there is no consensus yet (Piccinelli and Wilkinson 2000; Kessler et al. 1994).”
Gatt, J. M., Burton, K., Williams, L. M., & Schofield, P. R. (2014) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2014.09.014 · Cited by 281
Gender difference in the change of adolescents’ mental health and subjective wellbeing trajectories
Yoon, Y., Eisenstadt, M., Lereya, S. T., & Deighton, J. (2022) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-022-01961-4 · Cited by 387
“This is consistent with literature, suggesting that girls are more likely to display depressive symptoms across most of the life span, beginning at some point in adolescence [38].”
Zhang, M., Zhang, J., Zhang, F., Zhang, L., & Feng, D. (2018) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2018.06.038 · Cited by 275
Sagar-Ouriaghli, I., Godfrey, E., Bridge, L., Meade, L., & Brown, J. S. L. (2019) · American Journal of Men’s Health · doi:10.1177/1557988319857009 · Cited by 274
Rethinking Gender Differences in Health: Why We Need to Integrate Social and Biological Perspectives
Rieker, P. P., & Bird, C. E. (2005) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/60.special_issue_2.s40 · Cited by 269
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Gender differences in insomnia—a study in the Hong Kong Chinese population
Li, R. H. Y., Wing, Y. K., Ho, S. C., & Fong, S. (2002) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/s0022-3999(02)00437-3 · Cited by 262
“These could vary from artefactual reasons such as measurement and recall bias to biological, psychological and social factors [2].”
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Social and economic correlates of depressive symptoms and perceived stress in South African adults
Hamad, R., Fernald, L. C. H., Karlan, D., & Zinman, J. (2008) · Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech.2007.066191 · Cited by 260
Mood and Menopause: Findings from the Study of Women's Health Across the Nation (SWAN) over 10 Years
Bromberger, J. T., & Kravitz, H. M. (2011) · Obstetrics and Gynecology Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.ogc.2011.05.011 · Cited by 264
Gender differences in cardiovascular disease and comorbid depression.
Möller-Leimkühler, A. M. (2007) · Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.31887/dcns.2007.9.1/ammoeller · Cited by 251
Widowhood and Depression: New Light on Gender Differences, Selection, and Psychological Adjustment
Sasson, I. E., & Umberson, D. (2013) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbt058 · Cited by 248
“Controlling for baseline depressive symptoms is especially important when assessing gender differences, as women tend to have higher rates of depression compared with men throughout the life course (Mirowsky, 1996; Piccinelli & Wilkinson, 2000).”
The effect of acculturation and social support on change in mental health among young immigrants
Oppedal, B., Røysamb, E., & Sam, D. L. (2004) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1080/01650250444000126 · Cited by 266
“…when adolescents are concerned, considering the developmental changes in mental health in general and in depression in particular that are taking place during this stage (Angold, Costello, & Worthman, 1998; Kessler et al., 1994; Lewinsohn, Rohde, & Seeley, 1998; Piccinelli & Wilkinson, 2000).”
Metadata
- Authors
- Piccinelli, M., & Wilkinson, G.
- Affiliations
- Ospedale di Circolo e Fondazione Macchi (IT)
- Royal Liverpool University Hospital (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Piccinelli, Marco
- Venue
- British Journal of Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Royal College of Psychiatrists
- Published
- 2000-12
- Volume
- 177
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 486-492
- ISSN
- 0007-1250 (ISSN-L)
- 1472-1465
- OpenAlex
- W2055218553
- Cited by
- 2,376
- References
- 76
- Citations by year
- 2026: 62 · 2025: 94 · 2024: 88 · 2023: 72 · 2022: 90 · 2021: 118 · 2020: 109 · 2019: 138 · 2018: 142 · 2017: 175 · 2016: 134 · 2015: 159 · 2014: 134 · 2013: 114 · 2012: 112
- FWCI
- 4.35
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- The British Journal of Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Keywords
- gender differences, depressive disorders, women, risk factors, childhood adversity, childhood anxiety disorders, coping strategies, life events, genetic factors, social support, etiology
- MeSH terms
- Adaptation, Psychological, Depressive Disorder, Family, Female, Humans, Male, Norepinephrine, Patient Acceptance of Health Care, Risk Factors, Serotonin, Sex Factors, Social Support, Stress, Psychological, Prevalence, Disease Progression
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