An exploratory randomised trial of a simple, brief psychological intervention to reduce subsequent suicidal ideation and behaviour in patients admitted to hospital for self-harm.
Open accessAbstract
BACKGROUND: Implementation intentions link triggers for self-harm with coping skills and appear to create an automatic tendency to invoke coping responses when faced with a triggering situation. AIMS: To test the effectiveness of implementation intentions in reducing suicidal ideation and behaviour in a high-risk group. METHOD: Two hundred and twenty-six patients who had self-harmed were randomised to: (a) forming implementation intentions with a 'volitional help sheet'; (b) self-generating implementation intentions without help; or (c) thinking about triggers and coping, but not forming implementation intentions. We measured self-reported suicidal ideation and behaviour, threats of suicide and likelihood of future suicide attempt at baseline and then again at the 3-month follow-up. RESULTS: All suicide-related outcome measures were significantly lower at follow-up among patients forming implementation intentions compared with those in the control condition (ds>0.35). The volitional help sheet resulted in fewer suicide threats (d = 0.59) and lowered the likelihood of future suicide attempts (d = 0.29) compared with patients who self-generated implementation intentions. CONCLUSIONS: Implementation intention-based interventions, particularly when supported by a volitional help sheet, show promise in reducing future suicidal ideation and behaviour.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Study design and threats to inference were assessed with the Cochrane Risk of Bias tool.
“Study design and threats to inference were evaluated by applying the Cochrane Risk of Bias tool. 10”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Stages and processes of self-change of smoking: Toward an integrative model of change.
Prochaska, J. O., & DiClemente, C. C. (1983) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.51.3.390 · Cited by 9,098 · see citing works
Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans.
Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.54.7.493 · Cited by 5,478 · see citing works
Implementation intentions and goal achievement: a meta-analysis of effects and processes
Gollwitzer, P. M., & Sheeran, P. (2006) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(06)38002-1 · Cited by 3,236 · cited 4× · see citing works
“Gollwitzer & Sheeran 8 identified 94 independent tests of implementation intentions (including laboratory tests) that yielded an average effect size of d =0.65.”
BackgroundInfluentialOsman, A., Bagge, C. L., Gutierrez, P. M., Konick, L. C., Kopper, B. A., & Barrios, F. X. (2001) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/107319110100800409 · Cited by 2,276 · see citing works
Madge, N., Hewitt, A., Hawton, K., Wilde, E. J. D., Corcoran, P., Fekete, S., Heeringen, K. V., Leo, D. D., & Ystgaard, M. (2008) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.01879.x · Cited by 750 · see citing works
Suicide After Deliberate Self-Harm: A 4-Year Cohort Study
Cooper, J., Kapur, N., Webb, R., Lawlor, M., Guthrie, E., Mackway-Jones, K., & Appleby, L. (2005) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.162.2.297 · Cited by 690 · see citing works
The integrated motivational-volitional model of suicidal behavior
O’Connor, R. C. (2011) · Crisis · doi:10.1027/0227-5910/a000120 · Cited by 491 · see citing works
Łuszczyńska, A., Sobczyk, A., & Abraham, C. (2007) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/0278-6133.26.4.507 · Cited by 219 · see citing works
Psychological processes and repeat suicidal behavior: a four-year prospective study
O'Connor, R. C., Smyth, R., Ferguson, E., Ryan, C., & Williams, J. M. G. (2013) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0033751 · Cited by 194 · see citing works
Self-citationA volitional help sheet to encourage smoking cessation: A randomized exploratory trial.
Armitage, C. J. (2008) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/0278-6133.27.5.557 · Cited by 193 · see citing works
International Handbook of Suicide Prevention
(2011) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119998556 · Cited by 183 · see citing works
Why People Engage in Parasuicide: A Cross‐Cultural Study of Intentions
Hjelmeland, H., Hawton, K. E., Nordvik, H., Bille‐Brahe, U., Leo, D. D., Fekete, S., Grad, O. T., Häring, C., Kerkhof, A. J. F. M., Lönnqvist, J. K., et al. (2002) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1521/suli.32.4.380.22336 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
Cry of Pain: Understanding Suicide and Self-Harm
Williams, J. M. G. (1998) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 156 · see citing works
Cry of Pain: Understanding Suicide and Self-harm
Ramsay, R. (1998) · Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine · doi:10.1177/014107689809100324 · Cited by 150 · see citing works
Healthcare and social services resource use and costs of self-harm patients
Sinclair, J., Gray, A. M., Rivero‐Arias, O., Saunders, K. E. A., & Hawton, K. E. (2010) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-010-0183-5 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
Armitage, C. J. (2009) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0015984 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Completed suicides and self-harm in Malaysia: a systematic review
Armitage, C. J., Panagioti, M., Rahim, W. A., Rowe, R., & O’Connor, R. C. (2014) · General Hospital Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2014.12.002 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
A Volitional Help Sheet to Reduce Alcohol Consumption in the General Population: A Field Experiment
Armitage, C. J., & Arden, M. A. (2012) · Prevention Science · doi:10.1007/s11121-012-0291-4 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Introduction to suicide and self-harm
Kapur, N., & Gask, L. L. (2009) · Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.mppsy.2009.04.008 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Recognition of Suicide Risk, Crisis Helplines, and Psychosocial Interventions: A Selective Review
O’Connor, R. C., Rasmussen, S. A., & Beautrais, A. L. (2011) · doi:10.1002/9781119998556.ch25 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Trends in Self-Harm in Kuala Lumpur, 2005–2011
Armitage, C. J., Rahim, W. A., Rowe, R., & O’Connor, R. C. (2015) · Archives of Suicide Research · doi:10.1080/13811118.2015.1004493 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
The integrated motivational–volitional model of suicidal behaviour
O'Connor, R. C., & Kirtley, O. J. (2018) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2017.0268 · Cited by 1,559 · see citing works
The Lancet Psychiatry Commission on psychological treatments research in tomorrow's science
Holmes, E. A., Ghaderi, A., Harmer, C. J., Ramchandani, P. G., Cuijpers, P., Morrison, A. P., Roiser, J. P., Bockting, C. L. H., O'Connor, R. C., Shafran, R., et al. (2018) · The Lancet Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s2215-0366(17)30513-8 · Cited by 624 · see citing works
Self-citationPsychosocial interventions for self-harm in adults
Hawton, K. E., Witt, K., Salisbury, T. T., Arensman, E., Gunnell, D., Hazell, P., Townsend, E., & van Heeringen, K. (2016) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd012189 · Cited by 314 · see citing works
Doupnik, S. K., Rudd, B., Schmutte, T., Worsley, D., Bowden, C. F., McCarthy, E., Eggan, E., Bridge, J. A., & Marcus, S. C. (2020) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2020.1586 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
O’Connor, R. C., & Portzky, G. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02139 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
Psychosocial interventions for self-harm in adults
Witt, K., Hetrick, S. E., Rajaram, G., Hazell, P., Salisbury, T. T., Townsend, E., & Hawton, K. E. (2021) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd013668.pub2 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
O'Connor, R. C., Ferguson, E., Scott, F., Smyth, R., McDaid, D., Park, A.-L., Beautrais, A., & Armitage, C. J. (2017) · The Lancet Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s2215-0366(17)30129-3 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Self-citationCognitive behavioural therapy halves the risk of repeated suicide attempts: systematic review.
Gøtzsche, P. C., & Gøtzsche, P. K. (2017) · Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine · doi:10.1177/0141076817731904 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Hetrick, S. E., Robinson, J., Spittal, M. J., & Carter, G. L. (2016) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2016-011024 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Evidence that implementation intentions can overcome the effects of smoking habits.
Armitage, C. J. (2016) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/hea0000344 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Adverse Childhood Experiences and Hospital-Treated Self-Harm
Cleare, S., Wetherall, K., Clark, A., Ryan, C., Kirtley, O. J., Smith, M. J., & O’Connor, R. C. (2018) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph15061235 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Beurs, D. P. D., van Borkulo, C. D., & O’Connor, R. C. (2017) · BJPsych Open · doi:10.1192/bjpo.bp.116.004275 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Armitage, C. J. (2015) · Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1093/pubmed/fdv054 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Aggarwal, S., Patton, G. C., Berk, M., & Patel, V. (2021) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-020-02005-5 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Keyworth, C., O’Connor, R. C., Quinlivan, L. M., & Armitage, C. J. (2021) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/28349 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Beyond motivation: identifying targets for intervention to increase hearing aid use in adults
Sawyer, C. S., Munro, K. J., Dawes, P., O’Driscoll, M. P., & Armitage, C. J. (2019) · International Journal of Audiology · doi:10.1080/14992027.2018.1534007 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Evidence that implementation intentions reduce drivers’ use of mobile phones while driving
Elliott, M. A., Paterson, A., Orr, S., Marshall, C., Wood, C., Toye, M. K., & Wilson, C. (2021) · Transportation Research Part F Traffic Psychology and Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.trf.2021.03.002 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Lengvenytė, A., Olié, É., Strumila, R., Navickas, A., González-Pinto, A. M., & Courtet, P. (2021) · The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/15622975.2021.1907712 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Witt, K. (2017) · The Lancet Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s2215-0366(17)30152-9 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Keyworth, C., Quinlivan, L. M., Leather, J. Z., & Armitage, C. J. (2022) · BJPsych Open · doi:10.1192/bjo.2022.568 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Awenat, Y. F., Peters, S., Gooding, P. A., Pratt, D., Huggett, C., Harris, K., Armitage, C. J., & Haddock, G. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0222482 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Armitage, C. J. (2015) · Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s10865-015-9634-5 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Ramtiyal, B., Johari, S., Vijayvargy, L., & Prakash, S. (2023) · Journal of Global Operations and Strategic Sourcing · doi:10.1108/jgoss-04-2023-0027 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Armitage, C. J., Lees, D., Lewis, K., & Munro, K. J. (2017) · British Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjhp.12244 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Randomized Controlled Trial of a Volitional Help Sheet to Encourage Weight Loss in the Middle East
Armitage, C. J., Alganem, S. A., & Norman, P. (2017) · Prevention Science · doi:10.1007/s11121-017-0807-z · Cited by 15 · see citing works
O’Connor, R. C., Lundy, J.-M., Stewart, C., Smillie, S., McClelland, H., Syrett, S., Gavigan, M., McConnachie, A., Smith, M. J., Smıth, D. J., et al. (2019) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2018-025591 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Keyworth, C., Hart, J., Thoong, H., Ferguson, J., & Tully, M. P. (2017) · JMIR Human Factors · doi:10.2196/humanfactors.7153 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Does Situation-Specificity Affect the Operation of Implementation Intentions?
Epton, T., & Armitage, C. J. (2017) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2017.08.003 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Conceptualizing death: How do suicidal adolescents view the end of their lives?
Tezanos, K. M., Pollak, O. H., & Christine, B. W. (2021) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/sltb.12774 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Brief interventions for suicidal ideation in primary care: a systematic review
Younesi, P., Haas, C., Dreischulte, T., Schmitt, A., Gensichen, J., Lukaschek, K., for the POKAL-Group, Bühner, M., Falkai, P., Henningsen, P., et al. (2025) · BMC Family Practice · doi:10.1186/s12875-025-02848-4 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Keeler, A. R., Nydegger, L. A., & Crano, W. D. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1145969 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Kandsperger, S., Madurkay, J., Schleicher, D., Otto, A., Ecker, A., Brunner, R. M., & Jarvers, I. (2022) · Psychopathology · doi:10.1159/000526611 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Evidence that implementation intentions reduce self‐harm in the community
Paterson, A., Elliott, M. A., Brown, L. A., & Rasmussen, S. A. (2023) · British Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjhp.12682 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
McGrath, E., Elliott, R., Millar, T., & Armitage, C. J. (2019) · Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s10865-019-00078-5 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Keyworth, C., Quinlivan, L. M., Leather, J. Z., O’Connor, R. C., & Armitage, C. J. (2022) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-021-03625-0 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Elliott, M. A., McGroarty, A., & Robertson, D. J. (2023) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjep.12647 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Keyworth, C., Armitage, C. J., Johnson, J., Epton, T., Vogt, K. S., & Conner, M. T. (2025) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2025.118729 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Homan, S., Marciniak, M. A., Michel, S., Bertram, A.-M., Rühlmann, C., Pethő, A., Kirchhofer, L., Biele, L., Segerer, R. K., Homan, P., et al. (2026) · EClinicalMedicine · doi:10.1016/j.eclinm.2026.103824 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Lewison, G., Sullivan, R. J., & Kılıç, C. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0250414 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Arensman, E., Troya, M. I., Nicholson, S., Sadath, A., Cully, G., Costa, A. P., Benson, R., Corcoran, P. E., Griffin, E., Williamson, E., et al. (2020) · BMC Health Services Research · doi:10.1186/s12913-020-05254-x · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Bailey, R., Bartlett, Y. K., Hassan, L., Armitage, C. J., Stockton-Powdrell, C., Machin, M., Lewis, S. W., & Epton, T. (2022) · International Journal of Social Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/00207640221102733 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Evaluating a Smartphone App for University Students Who Self-Harm
Cliffe, B., & Stallard, P. N. (2023) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci13040394 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Brief Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy zur Suizidprävention
Forkmann, T., Serebriakova, J., & Teismann, T. (2025) · Die Psychotherapie · doi:10.1007/s00278-025-00775-4 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Keyworth, C., Quinlivan, L. M., Leather, J. Z., O’Connor, R. C., & Armitage, C. J. (2023) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-023-16344-w · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Hwang, I., Chen, Y., Armitage, C. J., Hsu, C., & Chang, S. (2023) · BJPsych Open · doi:10.1192/bjo.2023.78 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Randomised controlled trial of a brief theory-based online intervention to reduce self-harm
Keyworth, C., Leather, J. Z., Quinlivan, L. M., O’Connor, R. C., & Armitage, C. J. (2025) · BJPsych Open · doi:10.1192/bjo.2025.2 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Emergency nurses and the care of people who have self-harmed: A meta-ethnography
Molloy, L., Aldahmashi, H., Merrick, T. T., Lewer, K., Alanazi, F. K., Doyle, L., Keogh, B., & Wand, T. (2025) · International Emergency Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.ienj.2025.101682 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Roncete, G. P., Farhat, L. C., Beiram, L., Damiano, B. B. F., Bryan, C. J., Ramírez, K. L., Miguel, E. C., & Damiano, R. F. (2026) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/acps.70085 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Cacciacarro, M. F., Roncete, G. P., Damiano, B. B. F., Beiram, L., Medeiros, G. C., de Figueiredo, L. L., Nery, L. D. D. M., Baruzzi, M. M., Zanetti, M. V., & Damiano, R. F. (2026) · Psychiatric Annals · doi:10.3928/00485713-20260313-03 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The Impact of Allied Health Brief Therapy Clinic Interventions in Consumers in Suicidal Crisis
He, W., Mansfield, Y., & Meehan, T. (2023) · Community Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1007/s10597-023-01148-4 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Elliott, M. A., McGroarty, A., Robertson, D. J., & Anderson, H. P. (2025) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjep.70014 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Brief interventions and contacts after suicide attempt: A meta-analysis.Preprint
Homan, S., Ritzinger, A. T., Michel, S., Bertram, A.-M., Marciniak, M. A., Rühlmann, C., Pethő, A., Kirchhofer, L., Homan, P., Olbrich, S., et al. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/s2dja · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Trial of an intervention to reduce suicidal ideation and behaviour
House, A. O., & Owens, D. (2016) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.209.4.350a
Best Practice Following Hospital Presentation for Self-Harm: A Rapid Literature Review
Robinson, S. S., Donaldson, A., Witt, K., & Bailey, E. (2016) · Monash University Research Portal (Monash University)
Castillo-Eito, L., Armitage, C. J., Norman, P., & Rowe, R. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/8nz3j
Karhausen, L. (2025) · Philosophy and medicine · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-81257-6_5
Elliott, M. A., Orr, S., Paterson, A., Coyle, M. M., Gallacher, M., Hunter, A., McGeehan, L., Molloy, R., Noble, J., Peattie, L., et al. (2025) · Transportation Research Part F Traffic Psychology and Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.trf.2025.103339
Psychosocial interventions targeting suicidality within inpatient psychiatry: a scoping review
Olarte‐Godoy, J., Halladay, J. E., Jack, S. M., Cleverley, K., McGillion, M. H., Gehrke, P., Peacock, J., & Links, P. S. (2025) · Journal of Mental Health · doi:10.1080/09638237.2025.2585196
Arensman, E., Troya, M. I., Nicholson, S., Sadath, A., Cully, G., Ramos Costa, A. P., Benson, R., Corcoran, P., Griffin, E., Williamson, E., et al. (2020) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.12586621
Arensman, E., Troya, M. I., Nicholson, S., Sadath, A., Cully, G., Ramos Costa, A. P., Benson, R., Corcoran, P., Griffin, E., Williamson, E., et al. (2020) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.12586618
Keyworth, C., Quinlivan, L. M., Leather, J. Z., O’Connor, R. C., & Armitage, C. J. (2023) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.24012946
Arensman, E., Troya, M. I., Nicholson, S., Sadath, A., Cully, G., Ramos Costa, A. P., Benson, R., Corcoran, P., Griffin, E., Williamson, E., et al. (2020) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.12586615
Lelic, D., & Fischer, R.-L. (2026) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/2026_jslhr-25-00431
- Authors
- Armitage, C. J., Rahim, W. A., Rowe, R., & O'Connor, R. C.
- Affiliations
- Manchester Academic Health Science Centre (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Armitage, Christopher J.
- Venue
- British Journal of Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Royal College of Psychiatrists
- Published
- 2016-05
- Volume
- 208
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 470-476
- ISSN
- 0007-1250 (ISSN-L)
- 1472-1465
- OpenAlex
- W2238667578
- Cited by
- 63
- References
- 21
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 9 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 8 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 4 · 2018: 4 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 2
- FWCI
- 9.36
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- The British Journal of Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- White Rose Research Online (University of Leeds, The University of Sheffield, University of York) (acceptedVersion)
- Research Explorer (The University of Manchester) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Suicide and Self-Harm Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Keywords
- implementation intentions, self-harm, suicidal ideation, suicide attempts, suicide prevention, psychological intervention, coping strategies, hospitalized patients
- MeSH terms
- Adaptation, Psychological, Adolescent, Adult, Female, Follow-Up Studies, Humans, Inpatients, Male, Middle Aged, Psychotherapy, Brief, Suicide, Attempted, Outcome Assessment, Health Care, Intention, Young Adult, Suicidal Ideation
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
