Pit Latrines and Their Impacts on Groundwater Quality: A Systematic Review
Open accessAbstract
Background: Pit latrines are one of the most common human excreta disposal systems in low-income countries, and their use is on the rise as countries aim to meet the sanitation-related target of the Millennium Development Goals. There is concern, however, that discharges of chemical and microbial contaminants from pit latrines to groundwater may negatively affect human health. Objectives: Our goals were to a) calculate global pit latrine coverage, b) systematically review empirical studies of the impacts of pit latrines on groundwater quality, c) evaluate latrine siting standards, and d) identify knowledge gaps regarding the potential for and consequences of groundwater contamination by latrines. Methods: We used existing survey and population data to calculate global pit latrine coverage. We reviewed the scientific literature on the occurrence of contaminants originating from pit latrines and considered the factors affecting transport of these contaminants. Data were extracted from peer-reviewed articles, books, and reports identified using Web of ScienceSM, PubMed, Google, and document reference lists. Discussion: We estimated that approximately 1.77 billion people use pit latrines as their primary means of sanitation. Studies of pit latrines and groundwater are limited and have generally focused on only a few indicator contaminants. Although groundwater contamination is frequently observed downstream of latrines, contaminant transport distances, recommendations based on empirical studies, and siting guidelines are variable and not well aligned with one another. Conclusions: In order to improve environmental and human health, future research should examine a larger set of contextual variables, improve measurement approaches, and develop better criteria for siting pit latrines.
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Some field studies suggest that pit latrines may be less likely to contaminate underlying groundwater when they are lined, particularly in rainy conditions.
“Some field studies suggest that pit latrines, which are the most typical type of sanitation infrastructure in urban informal settlements, may be less likely to contaminate underlying groundwater when they are lined, particularly in rainy conditions 105 .”
From Urban informal settlements as hotspots of antimicrobial resistance and the need to curb environmental transmission. (2020) · cites this paper as [105]
The Results (page not provided) report less fecal-coliform contamination beside peat-lined pits than unlined pits, and the Discussion says liners can minimize seepage to groundwater. The paper does not show that lining is particularly protective in rainy conditions; its seasonal findings concern contamination without a lined-versus-unlined comparison. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredAn estimated 1.77 billion people worldwide use some form of pit latrine as their primary means of excreta disposal.
“Of the 2.7 billion people using on-site sanitation worldwide [6], an estimated 1.77 billion use some form of pit latrine as their primary means of excreta disposal [12].”
From Are pit latrines in urban areas of Sub-Saharan Africa performing? A review of usage, filling, insects and odour nuisances (2015) · cites this paper as [12]
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Kumar, P., Bansod, B. K. S., Debnath, S. K., Thakur, P. K., & Ghanshyam, C. (2015) · Environmental Impact Assessment Review · doi:10.1016/j.eiar.2015.02.001 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Hand, S. M., & Cusick, R. D. (2021) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.0c06254 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
Groundwater quality: Global threats, opportunities and realising the potential of groundwater
Lapworth, D. J., Boving, T. B., Kreamer, D. K., Kebede, S., & Smedley, P. L. (2021) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.152471 · Cited by 163 · see citing works
K'oreje, K. O., Okoth, M. O., Langenhove, H. R. V., & Demeestere, K. (2019) · Journal of Environmental Management · doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.109752 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
Are we underestimating urban poverty?
Lucci, P., Bhatkal, T., & Хан, А. (2017) · World Development · doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2017.10.022 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
Laffite, A., Kilunga, P. I., Kayembe, J. M., Devarajan, N., Mulaji, C. K., Giuliani, G., Slaveykova, V. I., & Poté, J. W. (2016) · Frontiers in Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fmicb.2016.01128 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
“The cumulative effect of no drainage system and the presence of wild discharge next to the US sampling point may explain why hospital effluents discharge showed no significant increase in FIB abundance in the receiving system (Orsi et al., 2007; Graham and Polizzotto, 2013).”
BackgroundThe impacts of climate change on coastal groundwater
Richardson, C., Davis, K. L., Ruiz‐González, C., Guimond, J., Michael, H. A., Paldor, A., Moosdorf, N., & Paytan, A. (2024) · Nature Reviews Earth & Environment · doi:10.1038/s43017-023-00500-2 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
Hynds, P. D., Thomas, M. K., & Pintar, K. D. M. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0093301 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
“The review protocol was adapted from previous studies [35–37].”
MethodHow Do Households Respond to Unreliable Water Supplies? A Systematic Review
Majuru, B., Suhrcke, M., & Hunter, P. R. (2016) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph13121222 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
Nakagiri, A., Niwagaba, C. B., Nyenje, P. M., Kulabako, R. N., Tumuhairwe, J. B., & Kansiime, F. (2015) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-016-2772-z · Cited by 133 · see citing works
“77 billion use some form of pit latrine as their primary means of excreta disposal [12].”
BackgroundWorlding Water Supply: Thinking Beyond the Network in Jakarta
Furlong, K., & Kooy, M. (2017) · International Journal of Urban and Regional Research · doi:10.1111/1468-2427.12582 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
Rural:urban inequalities in post 2015 targets and indicators for drinking-water
Bain, R., Wright, J., Christenson, E., & Bartram, J. (2014) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.05.007 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
“For example, it is well established that the use of pit latrines, which are more common in rural areas, can negatively influence ground water quality (Graham and Polizzotto, 2013).”
BackgroundSchriewer, A., Odagiri, M., Wuertz, S., Misra, P. R., Panigrahi, P., Clasen, T., & Jenkins, M. W. (2015) · American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene · doi:10.4269/ajtmh.14-0824 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
“tables and extended periods of inundation associated with the monsoon season in the study area.(17) Total Bacteroidales markers were detected on a mother’s”
BackgroundDoes 91% of the world’s population really have “sustainable access to safe drinking water”?
Martínez‐Santos, P. (2017) · International Journal of Water Resources Development · doi:10.1080/07900627.2017.1298517 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
“Shallow unprotected wells, uncontrolled waste disposal, intermittent water supplies and free-roaming livestock are frequent causes of microbial contamination in drinking water supplies (Graham & Polizzotto, 2013; Kumpel & Nelson, 2013).”
BackgroundSclar, G. D., Penakalapati, G., Amato, H. K., Garn, J. V., Alexander, K., Freeman, M. C., Boisson, S., Medlicott, K. O., & Clasen, T. (2016) · International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health · doi:10.1016/j.ijheh.2016.09.021 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
“Given the effects of hydrology, gradients, soil conditions, seasons, fecal load, pathogens present and other factors on the migration of pathogens in the soil (Graham and Polizzotto, 2013), it is not clear from current evidence whether these results can be generalized to other settings.”
BackgroundToward operational methods for the assessment of intrinsic groundwater vulnerability: A review
Wachniew, P., Żurek, A. J., Stumpp, C., Gemitzi, A., Gargini, A., Filippini, M., Różański, K., Meeks, J., Kværner, J., & Witczak, S. (2016) · Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology · doi:10.1080/10643389.2016.1160816 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Wang, X., Daigger, G. T., VRIES, W. D., Kroeze, C., Yang, M., Ren, N., Liu, J., & Butler, D. (2019) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-019-10445-0 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Orner, K. D., & Mihelcic, J. R. (2017) · Environmental Science Water Research & Technology · doi:10.1039/c7ew00195a · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Gwenzi, W., & Nyamadzawo, G. (2014) · Environmental Processes · doi:10.1007/s40710-014-0037-3 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
“Other case studies documenting the impacts of pit latrines on chemical and bacteriological quality of groundwater in urban and peri-urban areas are presented in a recent synthesis of global literature (Graham and Polizzotto 2013).”
BackgroundSustainable sanitation and gaps in global climate policy and financing
Dickin, S., Bayoumi, M., Garriga, R. G., Andersson, K., & Jiménez, A. (2020) · npj Clean Water · doi:10.1038/s41545-020-0072-8 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Occurrence of Human Enteric Viruses in Water Sources and Shellfish: A Focus on Africa
Upfold, N., Luke, G. A., & Knox, C. M. (2021) · Food and Environmental Virology · doi:10.1007/s12560-020-09456-8 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Sorensen, J., Sadhu, A., Sampath, G., Sugden, S., Duttagupta, S., Lapworth, D. J., Marchant, B. P., & Pedley, S. (2015) · Water Research · doi:10.1016/j.watres.2015.11.006 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
“77 billion people worldwide use pit latrines as their principal means of sanitation (Graham and Polizzotto, 2013).”
BackgroundInfluentialMasindi, V., & Foteinis, S. (2020) · Cleaner Engineering and Technology · doi:10.1016/j.clet.2020.100038 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Risk assessment to groundwater of pit latrine rural sanitation policy in developing country settings
Back, J. O., Rivett, M. O., Hinz, L. B., Mackay, N., Wanangwa, G. J., Phiri, O. L., Songola, C. E., Thomas, M. A. S., Kumwenda, S., Nhlema, M., et al. (2017) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.09.071 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
“…confident assessment of distances and discernment of attenuation processes that may limit migration (Banks et al., 2002; Escamilla et al., 2013; Graham and Polizzotto, 2013; Howard et al., 2003; Nichols et al., 1983; Nyenje et al., 2014; Schijven and Hassanizadeh, 2000; Tandia et al., 1999;…”
BackgroundInfluentialMcGill, B. M., Altchenko, Y., Hamilton, S. K., Kenabatho, P. K., Sylvester, S. R., & Villholth, K. G. (2019) · Hydrogeology Journal · doi:10.1007/s10040-018-1901-4 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
“Unlined pit latrines leach to the groundwater, threatening groundwater quality and human health with pollutants like nitrate (NO3 −) and pathogens (Cronin et al. 2007; Graham and Polizzotto 2013).”
BackgroundClimate change mitigation potential in sanitation via off-site composting of human waste
McNicol, G., Jeliazovski, J., François, J. J., Kramer, S. B., & Ryals, R. A. (2020) · Nature Climate Change · doi:10.1038/s41558-020-0782-4 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Drinking Water Security Challenges in Rohingya Refugee Camps of Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh
Akhter, M., Uddin, S. M. N., Rafa, N., Hridi, S. M., Staddon, C., & Powell, W. (2020) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su12187325 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
“source through overflowing, leaching, or due to a lack of sewage treatment facilities [37].”
BackgroundCid, C., Qu, Y., & Hoffmann, M. R. (2018) · Environmental Science Water Research & Technology · doi:10.1039/c8ew00209f · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Mukherjee, A., Duttagupta, S., Chattopadhyay, S., Bhanja, S. N., Bhattacharya, A., Chakraborty, S., Sarkar, S., Ghosh, T., Bhattacharya, J., & Sahu, S. (2019) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-019-50875-w · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Seasonal Variation in Drinking and Domestic Water Sources and Quality in Port Harcourt, Nigeria
Kumpel, E., Cock-Esteb, A., Duret, M., de Waal, D., & Khush, R. S. (2016) · American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene · doi:10.4269/ajtmh.16-0175 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Wood, T. P., Preez, C. D., Steenkamp, A., Duvenage, C. S. J., & Rohwer, E. R. (2017) · Environmental Pollution · doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2017.06.043 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Mass balance of nitrogen and potassium in urban groundwater in Central Africa, Yaounde/Cameroon
Kringel, R., Rechenburg, A., Kuitcha, D., Fouepe, A. T., Bellenberg, S., Kengne, I. M., & Fomo, M. A. (2016) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.12.090 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
The Impact of Drinking Water Quality and Sanitation on Child Health: Evidence from Rural Ethiopia
Usman, M. A., Gerber, N., & von Braun, J. (2018) · The Journal of Development Studies · doi:10.1080/00220388.2018.1493193 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“Other studies have also shown that latrines can be a source of ground water pollution (Banks, Karnachuk, Parnachev, Holden, & Frengstad, 2002; Graham & Polizzotto, 2013).”
Global Methane Emissions from Pit Latrines
Reid, M. C., Guan, K., Wagner, F., & Mauzerall, D. L. (2014) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/es501549h · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Ferrer, N., Folch, A., Masó, G., Sanchez, S. C., & Sánchez‐Vila, X. (2019) · Journal of Contaminant Hydrology · doi:10.1016/j.jconhyd.2019.103556 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Co-composting of solid waste and fecal sludge for nutrient and organic matter recovery
Cofie, O., Nikiema, J., Impraim, R., Adamtey, A., Paul, J., & Kone, D. (2016) · doi:10.5337/2016.204 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
“Graham and Polizzotto (2013) estimate that around 1.77 billion people in developing countries depend on pit latrines as their primary means of sanitation.”
BackgroundInfluentialMarques, R. C., Bernardi, J. V. E., Dorea, C. C., & Dórea, J. G. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17020577 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“The co-existence of poor sanitation and unclean water is a com on finding among poor Amazonians; indeed, the lack of hygienic facilities to separate fecal material from ground water contamination is a problem that affects the poor around the world [28].”
BackgroundInfluentialMariki, E. E., & Muzuka, A. N. N. (2016) · Environmental Monitoring and Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10661-016-5384-2 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Chique, C., Hynds, P. D., Andrade, L., Burke, L. P., Morris, D., Ryan, M. P., & O’Dwyer, J. (2020) · Water Research · doi:10.1016/j.watres.2020.115726 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Gwenzi, W., Marumure, J., Makuvara, Z., Simbanegavi, T. T., Njomou-Ngounou, E. L., Nya, E. L., Kaetzl, K., Noubactep, C., & Rzymski, P. (2023) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.163179 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Martínez‐Santos, P., Martín-Loeches, M., García-Castro, N., Solera, D., Díaz-Alcaide, S., Montero, E., & García-Rincón, J. (2017) · International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health · doi:10.1016/j.ijheh.2017.08.001 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Kormoker, T., Idris, A. M., Khan, M. M., Tusher, T. R., Proshad, R., Islam, M. S., Khadka, S., Rahman, S., Kabir, M. H., & Kundu, S. (2021) · Toxin Reviews · doi:10.1080/15569543.2020.1866012 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“It is also reported that the extent of bacterial contamination of groundwater largely depends on the hydrological and soil conditions of the area (Graham and Polizzotto 2013).”
BackgroundErcümen, A., Naser, A. M., Arnold, B. F., UNICOMB, L. E., Colford, J. M., & Luby, S. P. (2017) · American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene · doi:10.4269/ajtmh.16-0489 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“and a range of latrine siting guidelines with respect to proximity to drinking water sources have been recommended in different settings.(38) Augmenting sanitary inspections with an assessment of the groundwater table and characterization of local soil type could help elucidate the relationships between sanitary risk…”
BackgroundThe public health significance of latrines discharging to groundwater used for drinking
Ravenscroft, P., Mahmud, Z. H., Islam, M. S., Hossain, A. H. M. K., Zahid, A., Saha, G. C., Ali, A. H. M. Z., Islam, K., Cairncross, S., Clemens, J. D., et al. (2017) · Water Research · doi:10.1016/j.watres.2017.07.049 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
“The conventional wisdom that inadequate spacing of pit latrines and wells is a major contributor to faecal contamination of drinking water has long directed public health authorities to mandating spacing criteria, typically 10e50m, although the scientific basis and efficacy of these rules are often open to question (G…”
BackgroundSlum decay in Sub-Saharan Africa
Amegah, A. K. (2021) · Environmental Epidemiology · doi:10.1097/ee9.0000000000000158 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Lourenço, N., & Nunes, L. M. (2020) · Environmental Management · doi:10.1007/s00267-020-01268-7 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
“2011) being, therefore, a potential source of contamination to groundwater with nitrates, phosphates, and pathogens (Graham and Polizzotto 2013).”
BackgroundDey, N. C., Parvez, M., Dey, D., Saha, R., Ghose, L., Barua, M. K., Islam, A., & Chowdhury, M. (2016) · International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health · doi:10.1016/j.ijheh.2016.12.007 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
A global perspective on assessing groundwater quality
Misstear, B. D. R., Vargas, C. R., Lapworth, D. J., Ouédraogo, I., & Podgorski, J. E. (2022) · Hydrogeology Journal · doi:10.1007/s10040-022-02461-0 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“This is a particular threat to groundwater quality where wastewater systems such as pit latrines and septic tanks are used near supply wells that access shallow groundwater (Graham and Polizzotto 2013).”
BackgroundLebu, S., Gyimah, R. A. A., Nandoya, E., Brown, J. M., Salzberg, A. A., & Manga, M. (2024) · Journal of Environmental Management · doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2024.120264 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Ndoziya, A. T., Hoko, Z., & Gumindoga, W. (2019) · Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for Development · doi:10.2166/washdev.2019.179 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Review: Indicator bacteriophages in sludge, biosolids, sediments and soils
Martín-Díaz, J., Lucena, F., Blanch, A. R., & Jofre, J. T. (2020) · Environmental Research · doi:10.1016/j.envres.2020.109133 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
The Dilemmas of Water Quality and Food Security Interactions in Low- and Middle-Income Countries
Linderhof, V. G. M., de Lange, T., & Reinhard, S. (2021) · Frontiers in Water · doi:10.3389/frwa.2021.736760 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“Increasing the amount of pit latrines and increasing the amount of boreholes for drinking water nearby lead to water pollution by latrines which affects drinking water quality (Graham and Polizzotto, 2013), where children but also adults are affected.”
BackgroundInfluentialShivendra, B. T., & Ramaraju, H. K. (2015) · Aquatic Procedia · doi:10.1016/j.aqpro.2015.02.148 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Iqbal, M. S., Islam, M. M. M., & Hofstra, N. (2018) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.09.347 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Gwenzi, W., Simbanegavi, T. T., & Rzymski, P. (2023) · Water · doi:10.3390/w15030476 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Daniels, M. E., Smith, W. A., Schmidt, W., Clasen, T., & Jenkins, M. W. (2016) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.5b05797 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Ward, J., Lapworth, D. J., Read, D. S., Pedley, S., Banda, S. T., Monjerezi, M., Gwengweya, G., & MacDonald, A. (2020) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141284 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Impact of sampling depth on pathogen detection in pit latrines
Capone, D., Chigwechokha, P. K., Reyes, F. L. D. L., Holm, R. H., Risk, B. B., Tilley, E., & Brown, J. M. (2021) · PLoS neglected tropical diseases · doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0009176 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“The subsurface transport of pathogens from fecal sludges in latrines to groundwater has been demonstrated under certain hydrological and soil conditions [20].”
BackgroundNgasala, T. M., Masten, S. J., & Phanikumar, M. S. (2019) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.05.202 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Anastasopoulou, A., Kolios, A., Somorin, T. O., Sowale, A., Jiang, Y., Fidalgo, B., Parker, A., Williams, L., Collins, M., McAdam, E. J., et al. (2018) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.05.062 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Guo, S., Zhou, X., Simha, P., Perez-Mercado, L. F., Lv, Y., & Li, Z. (2021) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.148660 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Impact of Land Management on Water Resources, a South African Context
Nkosi, M., Mathivha, F. I., & Odiyo, J. O. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su13020701 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“Author Landuse Aspect Impact Location Saraiva Okello et al. [103] Forestry, irrigated agriculture, urbanisation Surface water quantity Changes in streamflow Inkomati RiverCatchmnet Hobbs et al. [62] Groundwater quality Crocodile RiverCatchment Parsons [63] Invasive plants Groundwater resources Reduced flow South Afric…”
BackgroundInfluentialEarly testing of new sanitation technology for urban slums: The case of the Blue Diversion Toilet
Tobias, R., O'Keefe, M., Künzle, R., Gebauer, H., Gründl, H., Morgenroth, E., Pronk, W., & Larsen, T. A. (2017) · Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.10.057 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“However, with close to two billion people relying on this technology (Graham and Polizzotto, 2013), methane emissions could be substantial.”
BackgroundHussain, F., Clasen, T., Akter, S., Bawel, V., Luby, S. P., Leontsini, E., UNICOMB, L. E., Barua, M. K., Thomas, B., & WINCH, P. J. (2017) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-017-4412-7 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“8 billion people from low-income countries use pit latrines as their usual form of sanitation [11].”
BackgroundEekert, M. H. A. V., Gibson, W., Torondel, B., Abilahi, F., Liseki, B., Schuman, E., Sumpter, C., & Ensink, J. H. J. (2019) · Water Science & Technology · doi:10.2166/wst.2019.220 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Díaz-Alcaide, S., & Martínez‐Santos, P. (2019) · Journal of Hydrology · doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2019.124006 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Klaas, D. K. S. Y., Imteaz, M. A., & Arulrajah, A. (2017) · Water Research · doi:10.1016/j.watres.2017.05.056 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“Environmental hazard from faecal traces leached from unlined septic tank or pit latrines 369 (Graham and Polizzotto, 2013; Nelson et al., 2014) in most of the houses in the study area could 370 occur in areas nearby the spring.”
BackgroundWong, L. W., Ong, K. S., Khoo, J. R., Goh, C. B. S., Hor, J. W., & Lee, S. M. (2020) · Expert Review of Gastroenterology & Hepatology · doi:10.1080/17474124.2020.1806711 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Chique, C., Hynds, P. D., Burke, L. P., Morris, D., Ryan, M. P., & O’Dwyer, J. (2020) · Water Research · doi:10.1016/j.watres.2020.116496 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Evolution of groundwater quality assessment on urban area- a bibliometric analysis
Bose, S., Mazumdar, A., & Basu, S. (2023) · Groundwater for Sustainable Development · doi:10.1016/j.gsd.2022.100894 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Polioviruses and other Enteroviruses
Betancourt, W. Q., & Shulman, L. M. (2018) · Michigan State University eBooks · doi:10.14321/waterpathogens.15 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“…that was associated with pit latrines was reported within 50 meters downstream of the latrines (Tillett, 2013; Verheyen et al., 2009) especially in freshly dug latrines where establishment of biofilm and maximum soil-filtering may take months to establish (Graham and Polizzotto, 2013).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialWater Resources Sustainability of Ulaanbaatar City, Mongolia
Batsaikhan, N., Lee, J. M., Nemer, B., & Woo, N. C. (2018) · Water · doi:10.3390/w10060750 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Mittal, A., Singh, R., Chakma, S., & Goel, G. (2020) · Journal of Water Process Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.jwpe.2020.101471 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Impact of an Urban Sanitation Intervention on Enteric Pathogen Detection in Soils
Capone, D., Berendes, D. M., Cumming, O., Holcomb, D., Knee, J., Konstantinidis, K. T., Lévy, K., Nalá, R., Risk, B. B., Stewart, J. R., et al. (2021) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.1c02168 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Gwenzi, W. (2021) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150680 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“coli indicator bacteria, and viruses including human pathogens have been widely detected in faecal sludge and boreholes located close to pit latrines (Graham and Polizzotto, 2013; Capone et al., 2021; Liu et al., 2021; Otaki et al., 2021).”
BackgroundBioaerosol emissions associated with pit latrine emptying operations
Farling, S., Rogers, T. W., Knee, J., Tilley, E., Brown, J. M., & Deshusses, M. A. (2018) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.08.147 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“8 billion people use pit latrines as a main means of sanitation (Berendes et al., 2017; Graham and Polizzotto, 2013; Jenkins et al., 2015).”
BackgroundSorensen, J., Carr, A. F., Nayebare, J. G., Diongue, D. M. L., Pouye, A., Roffo, R., Gwengweya, G., Ward, J., Kanoti, J. R., Okotto-Okotto, J., et al. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-72258-2 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
K'oreje, K. O., Okoth, M. O., Langenhove, H. R. V., & Demeestere, K. (2021) · Environmental Pollution · doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2021.118725 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Manda, A. K., Sisco, M. S., Mallinson, D. J., & Griffin, M. T. (2014) · Hydrological Processes · doi:10.1002/hyp.10303 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“Many communities across the world rely on pit latrines and onsite wastewater treatment systems (OWTS) – also known as septic systems – for disposing wastewater (e.g. Hanchar, 1991; Humphrey et al., 2012; Graham and Polizzotto, 2013).”
BackgroundOdiyo, J. O., & Makungo, R. (2018) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph15020317 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“Faecal matter from pit latrines also has potential to contaminate groundwater, thereby threatening human health [8].”
BackgroundBeukes, L. S., King, T. L. B., & Schmidt, Š. (2017) · International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health · doi:10.1016/j.ijheh.2017.08.002 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Engström, E., Balfors, B., Mörtberg, U. M., Thunvik, R., Gaily, T., & Mangold, M. (2015) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.02.023 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“Graham and Polizzotto (2013) argued that the ability tomake informed decisions about water and sanitation is largely limited by a scarcity of data, especially regarding the effects of environmental conditions on contamination.”
BackgroundInfluentialKumpel, E., Albert, J., Peletz, R., de Waal, D., Hirn, M., Danilenko, A. V., Uhl, V. W., Daw, A., & Khush, R. S. (2016) · American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene · doi:10.4269/ajtmh.15-0766 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“are in close proximity to water points can contribute to both microbiological and nitrate contamination.(45,46) In both Port Harcourt and Monrovia, sanitation services are inadequate:”
BackgroundAlemayehu, T. A., Weldetinsae, A., Dinssa, D. A., Derra, F. A., Bedada, T. L., Asefa, Y. B., Mengesha, S. D., Alemu, Z. A., Serte, M. G., Teklu, K. T., et al. (2020) · Environmental Monitoring and Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10661-020-08297-z · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Contreras, J. D., Islam, M., Mertens, A., Pickering, A. J., Kwong, L. H., Arnold, B. F., Benjamin‐Chung, J., Hubbard, A., Alam, M., Sen, D., et al. (2022) · International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health · doi:10.1016/j.ijheh.2022.114031 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Monney, I., & Antwi-Agyei, P. (2018) · Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development · doi:10.2166/washdev.2018.176 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Nguyen, A., Grembi, J. A., Riviere, M., Heitmann, G. B., Hutson, W. D., Athni, T. S., Patil, A., Ercümen, A., Lin, A., Crider, Y. S., et al. (2024) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1289/ehp13807 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“10,12,53,54 Compared with other regions, the presence of alluvial soil (consisting of loose silt, clay, and sand) in Bangladesh ’ s fl ood plains may prevent the transport of pathogens from latrines into groundwater supplies.”
A localized sanitation status index as a proxy for fecal contamination in urban Maputo, Mozambique
Capone, D., Adriano, Z., Berendes, D. M., Cumming, O., Dreibelbis, R., Holcomb, D., Knee, J., Ross, I., & Brown, J. M. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0224333 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“Groundwater level Community block leader survey � [3,9,45,46]”
BackgroundMutemi, S., Hoko, Z., & Makurira, H. (2020) · Physics and Chemistry of the Earth Parts A/B/C · doi:10.1016/j.pce.2020.102864 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Trimmer, J. T., Lohman, H. A. C., Byrne, D. M., Houser, S. A., Jjuuko, F., Katende, D., Banadda, N., Zerai, A., Miller, D. C., & Guest, J. S. (2020) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.0c03296 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
- Authors
- Graham, J. P., & Polizzotto, M. L.
- Affiliations
- George Washington University (US)
- North Carolina State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Graham, Jay P.
- Venue
- Environmental Health Perspectives
- Publisher
- American Chemical Society (ACS)
- Published
- 2013-03-22
- Volume
- 121
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 521-530
- ISSN
- 0091-6765 (ISSN-L)
- 1552-9924
- PMC
- PMC3673197
- OpenAlex
- W2084155931
- Cited by
- 431
- References
- 71
- Citations by year
- 2026: 41 · 2025: 20 · 2024: 36 · 2023: 44 · 2022: 37 · 2021: 49 · 2020: 42 · 2019: 34 · 2018: 35 · 2017: 44 · 2016: 20 · 2015: 15 · 2014: 11 · 2013: 3
- FWCI
- 1.60
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- public-domain
- creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ (vor, 1743 d)
- Locations
- Environmental Health Perspectives (publishedVersion, public-domain)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, public-domain)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, public-domain)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (acceptedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion, public-domain)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Fecal contamination and water quality
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Waste Management and Disposal › Wastewater Treatment and Reuse
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Water Quality and Pollution Assessment
- Keywords
- pit latrines, groundwater contamination, sanitation, microbial contaminants, chemical contaminants, contaminant transport, latrine coverage, low-income countries
- MeSH terms
- Ammonia, Chlorides, Humans, Nitrates, Sanitation, Toilet Facilities, Water Microbiology, Water Pollutants, Chemical, Water Pollution, Groundwater
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