The revised two‐factor Study Process Questionnaire: R‐SPQ‐2F
Open accessAbstract
Aim. To produce a revised two‐factor version of the Study Process Questionnaire (R‐SPQ‐2F) suitable for use by teachers in evaluating the learning approaches of their students. The revised instrument assesses deep and surface approaches only, using fewer items. Method. A set of 43 items was drawn up for the initial tests. These were derived from: the original version of the SPQ, modified items from the SPQ, and new items. A process of testing and refinement eventuated in deep and surface motive and strategy scales each with 5 items, 10 items per approach score. The final version was tested using reliability procedures and confirmatory factor analysis. Sample. The sample for the testing and refinement process consisted of 229 students from the health sciences faculty of a university in Hong Kong. A fresh sample of 495 undergraduate students from a variety of departments of the same university was used for the test of the final version. Results. The final version of the questionnaire had acceptable Cronbach alpha values for scale reliability. Confirmatory factor analysis indicated a good fit to the intended two‐factor structure. Both deep and surface approach scales had well identified motive and strategy subscales. Conclusion. The revision process has resulted in a simple questionnaire which teachers can use to evaluate their own teaching and the learning approaches of their students.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The Biggs Study Approach Questionnaire is a validated instrument for measuring learning approach.
“To measure the learning approach, we used a validated translation of the Biggs Study Approach Questionnaire (Biggs, Kember, and Leung 2001;Lassesen 2011).”
From Does gradeless learning affect students’ academic performance? A study of effects over time (2024) · cites this paper as Biggs, Kember, and Leung 2001
Surface learning is the most suitable approach when the educational goal is only to present new knowledge.
“If the aim of the educational intervention is simply to present the learner with new knowledge, then surface learning is the most appropriate learning style.”
From Adult learning theories: Implications for learning and teaching in medical education: AMEE Guide No. 83 (2013) · cites this paper as Biggs et al. 2001
Surface learning is not suitable when the learner must understand or later elaborate on the knowledge.
“It is not the most appropriate learning style, though, if the learner is required to understand, or later elaborate on the knowledge (Newble & Entwistle 1986;Biggs et al. 2001).”
From Adult learning theories: Implications for learning and teaching in medical education: AMEE Guide No. 83 (2013) · cites this paper as Biggs et al. 2001
Cites
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999) · Structural Equation Modeling A Multidisciplinary Journal · doi:10.1080/10705519909540118 · Cited by 108,788 · see citing works
Comparative fit indexes in structural models.
Bentler, P. M. (1990) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.107.2.238 · Cited by 25,266 · see citing works
EQS : structural equations program manual
Bentler, P. M. (1989) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 9,669 · see citing works
Teaching For Quality Learning At University
BIGGS, J. B., & Tang, C. S. (1999) · Cited by 7,559 · see citing works
Self-citationON QUALITATIVE DIFFERENCES IN LEARNING: I—OUTCOME AND PROCESS*
Marton, F., & Säljö, R. (1976) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8279.1976.tb02980.x · Cited by 4,748 · see citing works
Structural Equation Modeling With AMOS: Basic Concepts, Applications, and Programming, Third Edition
Byrne, B. M. (2016) · doi:10.4324/9781315757421 · Cited by 4,653 · see citing works
Phenomenography ? Describing conceptions of the world around us
Marton, F. (1981) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/bf00132516 · Cited by 3,289 · see citing works
Uses and abuses of coefficient alpha
Schmitt, N. (1996) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/1040-3590.8.4.350 · Cited by 2,588 · see citing works
Understanding Student Learning
Graham, N., Entwistle, N. J., & Ramsden, P. (1984) · British Journal of Educational Studies · doi:10.2307/3121589 · Cited by 2,372 · see citing works
Student Approaches to Learning and Studying
BIGGS, J. B. (1987) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 2,002 · see citing works
Self-citationWriting about structural equation models.
Hoyle, R. H., & Panter, A. T. (1995) · Cited by 1,708 · see citing works
Structural Equation Modeling with EQS and EQS/WINDOWS: Basic Concepts, Applications, and Programming
Byrne, B. M. (1994) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,499 · see citing works
(1996) · Cited by 1,456 · see citing works
Marton, F., & SÄALJÖ, R. (1976) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8279.1976.tb02304.x · Cited by 1,371 · see citing works
Cognitive Conceptions of Learning
Shuell, T. J. (1986) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543056004411 · Cited by 1,120 · see citing works
BIGGS, J. B. (1993) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8279.1993.tb01038.x · Cited by 964 · see citing works
Self-citationApproaches to the Enhancement of Tertiary Teaching
Biggs, J. (1989) · Higher Education Research & Development · doi:10.1080/0729436890080102 · Cited by 719 · see citing works
Self-citationEFFECTS OF ACADEMIC DEPARTMENTS ON STUDENTS' APPROACHES TO STUDYING
Ramsden, P., & Entwistle, N. J. (1981) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8279.1981.tb02493.x · Cited by 703 · see citing works
Marsh, H. W., & Hau, K. (1996) · The Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.1080/00220973.1996.10806604 · Cited by 700 · see citing works
Some Theory and Applications of Confirmatory Second-Order Factor Analysis
Rindskopf, D. M., & Rose, T. (1988) · Multivariate Behavioral Research · doi:10.1207/s15327906mbr2301_3 · Cited by 672 · see citing works
From Theory to Practice: A Cognitive Systems Approach
BIGGS, J. B. (1993) · Higher Education Research & Development · doi:10.1080/0729436930120107 · Cited by 631 · see citing works
Self-citationBowden, J. A., & Marton, F. (1999) · Education + Training · doi:10.1108/et.1999.41.5.ii.2 · Cited by 628 · see citing works
INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP DIFFERENCES IN STUDY PROCESSES
BIGGS, J. B. (1978) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8279.1978.tb03013.x · Cited by 446 · see citing works
Self-citationNewble, D. I., & Clarke, R. M. (1986) · Medical Education · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2923.1986.tb01365.x · Cited by 345 · see citing works
The intention to both memorise and understand: Another approach to learning?
Kember, D. R. (1996) · Higher Education · doi:10.1007/bf00128436 · Cited by 274 · see citing works
Self-citationDoes higher education promote independent learning?
Gow, L., & Kember, D. R. (1990) · Higher Education · doi:10.1007/bf00133895 · Cited by 268 · see citing works
Self-citationAPPROACHES TO STUDYING AND LEVELS OF PROCESSING IN UNIVERSITY STUDENTS
Entwistle, N. J., & WATERSTON, S. (1988) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8279.1988.tb00901.x · Cited by 251 · see citing works
Differential adoption of study approaches within individual students
Eley, M. G. (1992) · Higher Education · doi:10.1007/bf00145015 · Cited by 245 · see citing works
Learning and Study Strategies Inventory (LASSI)
Weinstein, C. E., Palmer, D. R., & Schulte, A. (1987) · Cited by 241 · see citing works
Researching Student Learning: Approaches to Studying in Campus-Based and Distance Education
Richardson, J. T. E. (2000) · Open Research Online (The Open University) · Cited by 220 · see citing works
Action Learning, Action Research: Improving the Quality of Teaching and Learning
Kember, D. R. (2000) · Cited by 216 · see citing works
Self-citationKember, D. R., & Leung, D. Y. P. (1998) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8279.1998.tb01300.x · Cited by 152 · see citing works
Self-citationContextual dependence of learning approaches: The effects of assessments.
Thomas, P. R., & Bain, J. (1984) · Cited by 147 · see citing works
DIMENSIONS OF STUDY BEHAVIOUR: ANOTHER LOOK AT ATI
BIGGS, J. B. (1976) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8279.1976.tb02987.x · Cited by 134 · see citing works
Self-citationReconsidering the dimensions of approaches to learning
Kember, D. R., Wong, A. S. W., & Leung, D. Y. P. (1999) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1348/000709999157752 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
Self-citationKember, D. R., Charlesworth, M., Davies, H., McKay, J., & Stott, V. (1997) · Studies In Educational Evaluation · doi:10.1016/s0191-491x(97)00009-6 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Self-citationSelf‐Concept and Learning: the revised inventory of learning processes
Schmeck, R. R., Geisler‐Brenstein, E., & Cercy, S. P. (1991) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/0144341910110310 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Wong, N., Lin, W., & Watkins, D. (1996) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/0144341960160308 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
53 Interesting Ways to Appraise Your Teaching
Gibbs, G., Habeshaw, S., & Habeshaw, T. (1988) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Teaching and learning in higher education
Dart, B. C., & Boulton‐Lewis, G. M. (1998) · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Cross-cultural comparisons of study habits.
Moreno, V., & Vesta, F. J. D. (1991) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.83.2.231 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Differentiation of Learning Processes within Ability Groups
BIGGS, J. B. (1984) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/0144341840040103 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Self-citationThe SPSS Guide to Data Analysis for SPSSX with Additional Instructions for SPSS/PC+
Heal, L. W., Norušis, M. J., & Norušis, M. J. (1988) · Journal of Educational Statistics · doi:10.2307/1164954 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Reflection and reflective practice in health professions education: a systematic review
Mann, K., Gordon, J., & MacLeod, A. (2009) · Advances in Health Sciences Education · doi:10.1007/s10459-007-9090-2 · Cited by 2,175 · see citing works
Taylor, D. C. M., & Hamdy, H. (2013) · Medical Teacher · doi:10.3109/0142159x.2013.828153 · Cited by 1,176 · see citing works
Baeten, M., Kyndt, E., Struyven, K., & Dochy, F. (2010) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2010.06.001 · Cited by 885 · see citing works
Study Habits, Skills, and Attitudes: The Third Pillar Supporting Collegiate Academic Performance
Credé, M., & Kuncel, N. R. (2008) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00089.x · Cited by 780 · see citing works
A four‐category scheme for coding and assessing the level of reflection in written work
Kember, D., McKay, J., Sinclair, K., & Wong, F. K. Y. (2008) · Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/02602930701293355 · Cited by 444 · see citing works
Self-citationHow is the use of technology in education evaluated? A systematic review
Lai, J. W. M., & Bower, M. (2019) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2019.01.010 · Cited by 334 · see citing works
Dinsmore, D. L., & Alexander, P. A. (2012) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-012-9198-7 · Cited by 205 · see citing works
Wang, X., Su, Y., Cheung, S., Wong, E., & Kwong, T. (2013) · Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/02602938.2012.658018 · Cited by 198 · see citing works
Methodological issues in questionnaire-based research on student learning in higher education.
Richardson, J. T. E. (2004) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-004-0004-z · Cited by 154 · see citing works
The effect of social interaction on learning engagement in a social networking environment
Lu, J., & Churchill, D. (2014) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2012.680966 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Large Language Model‐Based Chatbots in Higher Education
Yigci, D., Eryilmaz, M., Yetisen, A. K., Tasoglu, S., & Ozcan, A. (2025) · Advanced Intelligent Systems · doi:10.1002/aisy.202400429 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
An evaluation of advanced simulation in nursing: A mixed-method study
Chiang, V. C. L., & Chan, S. S. C. (2014) · Collegian · doi:10.1016/j.colegn.2013.05.003 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Does gradeless learning affect students’ academic performance? A study of effects over time
Kjærgaard, A., Buhl-Wiggers, J., & Mikkelsen, E. N. (2024) · Studies in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/03075079.2023.2233007 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“To measure the learning approach, we used a validated translation of the Biggs Study Approach Questionnaire (Biggs, Kember, and Leung 2001; Lassesen 2011).”
MethodAnvari, F., Richards, D., Hitchens, M., & Tran, H. M. T. (2019) · 2019 IEEE/ACM 41st International Conference on Software Engineering: Software Engineering Education and Training (ICSE-SEET) · doi:10.1109/icse-seet.2019.00015 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Assessing efficiency of prompts based on learner characteristics
Backhaus, J., Jeske, D., Poinstingl, H., & Koenig, S. (2017) · Computers · doi:10.3390/computers6010007 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Learning techniques that medical students use for long-term retention: A cross-sectional analysis
Urrizola, A., Santiago, R., & Arbea, L. (2023) · Medical Teacher · doi:10.1080/0142159x.2022.2137016 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
- Authors
- Biggs, J., Kember, D., & Leung, D. Y. P.
- Affiliations
- University of Hong Kong (HK)
- Hong Kong Polytechnic University (HK)
- Corresponding author
- Biggs, John
- Venue
- British Journal of Educational Psychology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2001-03
- Volume
- 71
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 133-149
- ISSN
- 0007-0998 (ISSN-L)
- 2044-8279
- OpenAlex
- W2026539857
- Cited by
- 2,122
- References
- 43
- Citations by year
- 2026: 93 · 2025: 101 · 2024: 99 · 2023: 121 · 2022: 120 · 2021: 127 · 2020: 147 · 2019: 110 · 2018: 115 · 2017: 116 · 2016: 107 · 2015: 114 · 2014: 119 · 2013: 121 · 2012: 85
- FWCI
- 85.62
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- figshare.com
- Locations
- British Journal of Educational Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- eCite Digital Repository (University of Tasmania) (acceptedVersion)
- Hong Kong Education Bibliographic Database (submittedVersion)
- eCite Digital Repository (University of Tasmania) (submittedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- PolyU Institutional Research Archive (Hong Kong Polytechnic University) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Evaluation of Teaching Practices
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
- Keywords
- Study Process Questionnaire, deep and surface approaches, learning methods, instrument revision, student learning evaluation, health sciences students, undergraduate students
- MeSH terms
- Factor Analysis, Statistical, Female, Humans, Learning, Male, Surveys and Questionnaires, Teaching, Reproducibility of Results
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
