Flexible Cognitive Strategies during Motor Learning

“The Nelder–Mead method or simplex method [43], imple-”

“An alternative approach to model strategy change could be derived from models of reinforcement learning [34–37].”

“Several studies have shown that adaptation rates can change when the certainty of sensory information is manipulated [31,32].”

“[5–7] would be hard to verbalize.”

“To minimize these problems, we used a boostrapping [42] method to estimate peak drift.”

“Thus, the final version of our model is a variant of a two-rate state space model [28], but with the two rates reflecting different error sources.”

“This may impede drift because participants observe the casual relationship between movement of their hand and the endpoint, cursor feedback [33].”

“The reconceptualization hypothesis would predict that peak drift should equal or be greater than the aftereffect. This follows from the idea that adaptation of the internal model should cease at the time the task goal changes from reaching to tool mastery. Once the participant switches from learning about their arm to…”

“The benefits of an explicit strategy may be illusory with adaptive processes arising from automatic and incremental updating of a motor system that is impenetrable to conscious intervention [12–16].”

“Mazzoni and Krakauer [9] suggested that drift reflects the interaction of the independent contribution of strategic and implicit learning processes in movement execution.”

“The type of motor task and nature of the instruction can have varying effects on motor execution and learning [1–3].”

“[5–7] would be hard to verbalize.”

“The type of motor task and nature of the instruction can have varying effects on motor execution and learning [1–3].”

“The type of motor task and nature of the instruction can have varying effects on motor execution and learning [1–3].”

“sequence, learning occurs much more rapidly compared to when sequential learning arises from repeated performance [4].”

“To quantify the deadaptation rate during the washout phase, we fit an exponential function [26] to the time series of target endpoint errors.”

“[5–7] would be hard to verbalize.”

“Several studies have shown that adaptation rates can change when the certainty of sensory information is manipulated [31,32].”

“Moreover, the rate of learning, at least in the early phase of adaptation, correlates positively with spatial working memory span [21], suggesting that strategic compensation may be dependent on working memory capacity.”

“However, performance measures indicate that adaptation may differ between conditions in which participants are either aware or unaware of the changes in the environment [17].”

“For example, rather than view the task goal as one involving reaching to targets, the participant may have switched to an orientation in which the task goal involved mastering a game in which the hand is a tool [38–40].”

“Qualitative changes in performance may also indicate that the participants have fundamentally changed their conceptualization of the task. For example, rather than view the task goal as one involving reaching to targets, the participant may have switched to an orientation in which the task goal involved mastering a ga…”

“The benefits of an explicit strategy may be illusory with adaptive processes arising from automatic and incremental updating of a motor system that is impenetrable to conscious intervention [12–16].”

“The abrupt onset of large unexpected errors may promote the use of cognitive strategies [18–20].”

“Studies of sensorimotor adaptation during aging also indicate that the rate of learning is slower in older adults compared to young adults, despite similar aftereffects [22–24].”

“An alternative approach to model strategy change could be derived from models of reinforcement learning [34–37].”

“The effect of the visual landmarks on adaptation also provides insight into why other studies have not observed drift, even when participants develop some explicit awareness of the rotation, and presumably, use that knowledge [8,10,11,24,25] to improve performance rapidly.”

“The effect of the visual landmarks on adaptation also provides insight into why other studies have not observed drift, even when participants develop some explicit awareness of the rotation, and presumably, use that knowledge [8,10,11,24,25] to improve performance rapidly.”

“Studies of sensorimotor adaptation during aging also indicate that the rate of learning is slower in older adults compared to young adults, despite similar aftereffects [22–24].”

“The benefits of an explicit strategy may be illusory with adaptive processes arising from automatic and incremental updating of a motor system that is impenetrable to conscious intervention [12–16].”

“The benefits of an explicit strategy may be illusory with adaptive processes arising from automatic and incremental updating of a motor system that is impenetrable to conscious intervention [12–16].”

“An alternative approach to model strategy change could be derived from models of reinforcement learning [34–37].”

“To statistically evaluate the results of the bootstrapping procedures, the mean statistics of each resampled iteration were calculated and then used to determine p values [29,42].”

“The abrupt onset of large unexpected errors may promote the use of cognitive strategies [18–20].”

“The effect of the visual landmarks on adaptation also provides insight into why other studies have not observed drift, even when participants develop some explicit awareness of the rotation, and presumably, use that knowledge [8,10,11,24,25] to improve performance rapidly.”

“The effect of the visual landmarks on adaptation also provides insight into why other studies have not observed drift, even when participants develop some explicit awareness of the rotation, and presumably, use that knowledge [8,10,11,24,25] to improve performance rapidly.”

“The effect of the visual landmarks on adaptation also provides insight into why other studies have not observed drift, even when participants develop some explicit awareness of the rotation, and presumably, use that knowledge [8,10,11,24,25] to improve performance rapidly.”

“Indeed, the saliency of the sensory-prediction error is critical with respect to implicit learning, such that when the landmark is absent participants are still able to employ the strategy to reduce target error but at the cost of reduced implicit learning (Benson et al., 2011; Taylor and Ivry, 2011).”

“This complex, nonmonotonic behavior can be explained by a dynamic interplay between explicit learning, related to fluctuations in aiming strategies, and implicit learning, related to the training of a forward model (Mazzoni and Krakauer 2006; Taylor and Ivry 2011).”

“This results in interesting interactions between explicit aiming and implicit adaptation, but the dual operation of both processes makes it difficult to characterize their individual features (Taylor, Krakauer, & Ivry, 2014; Taylor & Ivry, 2011).”