Chimpanzees Share Forbidden Fruit
Open accessAbstract
The sharing of wild plant foods is infrequent in chimpanzees, but in chimpanzee communities that engage in hunting, meat is frequently used as a 'social tool' for nurturing alliances and social bonds. Here we report the only recorded example of regular sharing of plant foods by unrelated, non-provisioned wild chimpanzees, and the contexts in which these sharing behaviours occur. From direct observations, adult chimpanzees at Bossou (Republic of Guinea, West Africa) very rarely transferred wild plant foods. In contrast, they shared cultivated plant foods much more frequently (58 out of 59 food sharing events). Sharing primarily consists of adult males allowing reproductively cycling females to take food that they possess. We propose that hypotheses focussing on 'food-for-sex and -grooming' and 'showing-off' strategies plausibly account for observed sharing behaviours. A changing human-dominated landscape presents chimpanzees with fresh challenges, and our observations suggest that crop-raiding provides adult male chimpanzees at Bossou with highly desirable food commodities that may be traded for other currencies.
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In chimpanzees, food sharing is not restricted to meat but has also been reported with non-meat foods, for example honey or large fruits such as Carica papaya or Treculia africana.
“Food sharing in chimpanzees, however, is not restricted to meat but has also been reported with non-meat foods, for example honey [52], or large fruits such as Carica papaya [57] or Treculia africana [52].”
From Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees (2014) · cites this paper as [57]
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“, Hohmann and Fruth 2008; Gomes and Boesch 2009) and large fruits or cultivated plant food (Hockings et al. 2007; Yamamoto 2015).”
BackgroundInfluentialThe evolutionary roots of prosociality: the case of instrumental helping
Melis, A. P. (2017) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.08.019 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“Prototypical cases are cases of consolation behaviour [14,15], instrumental helping or intervening to help others that are struggling with an action goal [16,17], and sharing of valuable resources, such as meat or fruits [18-20].”
BackgroundFarsightedness (presbyopia) in a wild elderly chimpanzee: The first report
Fujisawa, M., Matsubayashi, K., Soumah, A. G., Kasahara, Y., Nakatsuka, M., & Matsuzawa, T. (2009) · Geriatrics and gerontology international/Geriatrics & gerontology international · doi:10.1111/j.1447-0594.2009.00575.x · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Self-citationLiebal, K., & Rossano, F. (2017) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2017.09.006 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Oelze, V. M., Douglas, P. H., Stephens, C. R., Surbeck, M., Behringer, V., Richards, M. P., Fruth, B., & Hohmann, G. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0162091 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
The roles of food quality and sex in chimpanzee sharing behavior (Pan troglodytes)
Tinsman, J. C., Suchak, M., Eppley, T. M., Campbell, M., & de Waal, F. Β. Μ. (2013) · Behaviour · doi:10.1163/1568539x-00003087 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“However, male chimpanzees at Bossou in Guinea have also been observed to share more food following risky crop raids on human agricultural fields than easily obtainable, uncultivated fruits (Hockings et al., 2007).”
InfluentialResponses to Inequity in Non-human Primates
Brosnan, S. F. (2009) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-374176-9.00019-1 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Chacma baboon mating markets: competitor suppression mediates the potential for intersexual exchange
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“…intersexual exchange seen in species like chimpanzees, where males commonly provide services and/or foodstuffs to females with whom they mate and where the frequency with which they mate is correlated with the degree of provision (Hemelrijk et al. 1992; Hockings et al. 2007; Gomes and Boesch 2009).”
BackgroundBonobo Cognition and Behaviour
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Behavioral Flexibility and Division of Roles in Chimpanzee Road-Crossing
Hockings, K. J. (2011) · Primatology monographs · doi:10.1007/978-4-431-53921-6_24 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Self-citationChimpanzee interactions with nonhuman species in an anthropogenic habitat
Matsuzawa, T., Hockings, K. J., Humle, T., & Carvalho, S. (2012) · Behaviour · doi:10.1163/156853912x636735 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“In the case of the potto, the second-ranked adult male shared meat with the alpha male; this contrasts with other adult food-sharing events observed at Bossou, which are predominantly from adult males to females (e.g., crops, Hockings et al., 2007).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationSupply and demand predict male grooming of swollen females in captive chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes
Koyama, N. F., Caws, C., & Aureli, F. (2012) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2012.09.007 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“The idea of sexual exchange is well established as there are a number of examples from primates (grooming for sex: Gumert 2007; food for sex: Goodall 1986; Hemelrijk et al. 1992; Hockings et al. 2007; Gomes & Boesch 2009, 2011; political support for sex: Duffy et al. 2007) and nonprimates (insects: e.”
BackgroundInfluentialGift-Giving as a Courtship or Mate-Retention Tactic?: Insights from Non-Human Models
Jonason, P. K., Cetrulo, J. F., Madrid, J. M., & Morrison, C. (2009) · Evolutionary Psychology · doi:10.1177/147470490900700112 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“When male long-tailed macaques groom females (Gumert, 2007), when male chimpanzees offer animal meat to females (Hockings et al., 2007), and when insects offer gifts which range from gifts of a nutritious nature to token-gifts to females (Elgar, 1992; Kessel, 1955; Thornhill, 1976) they increase the probability they w…”
BackgroundThe Prosocial Primate—A Critical Review
Jensen, K. (2016) · Advances in the study of behavior · doi:10.1016/bs.asb.2016.03.001 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Captive chimpanzees share diminishing resources
Calcutt, S. E., Lonsdorf, E. V., Bonnie, K. E., Milstein, M. S., & Ross, S. R. (2014) · Behaviour · doi:10.1163/1568539x-00003225 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“Chimpanzees in Tai National Forest share meat from hunts even when only a small amount is caught (Boesch & Boesch, 1989) and chimpanzees at Bossou share high-value fruit that was risky to obtain (Hockings et al., 2007).”
BackgroundNon-reciprocal but peaceful fruit sharing in wild bonobos in Wamba
Yamamoto, S. (2015) · BRILL eBooks · doi:10.1163/9789004304178_006 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Male chimpanzees' grooming rates vary by female age, parity, and fertility status
Proctor, D. P., Lambeth, S. P., Schapiro, S. J., & Brosnan, S. F. (2011) · American Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1002/ajp.20964 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
How chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) share the spoils with collaborators and bystanders
John, M., Duguid, S., Tomasello, M., & Melis, A. P. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0222795 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“There are examples of non-meat foods in the chimpanzee diet that are large and monopolizable or difficult to get, such as Treculia africana fruit or the proceeds of crop raiding, and these are more likely to be shared than other non-meat foods [24, 26] but there may be additional Fig 3.”
BackgroundTanaka, M., & Yamamoto, S. (2009) · Animal Cognition · doi:10.1007/s10071-009-0270-8 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“The Xexibility might enable them to “share” various kinds of items between conspeciWcs (e.g., Hockings et al. 2007 ).”
BackgroundCourtesy food sharing characterized by begging for social bonds in wild bonobos
Yamamoto, S., & Furuichi, T. (2017) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198728511.003.0009 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Satsias, Z. M., Silk, M. J., Hockings, K. J., Cibot, M., Rohen, J., & McLennan, M. R. (2022) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2022.01.016 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Self-citationCouturier, C., Bortolamiol, S., Ortmann, S., Okimat, J. P., Asalu, E., & Krief, S. (2022) · Animals · doi:10.3390/ani12070806 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“Nevertheless, in a crop-foraging context, chimpanzees can be vigilant, silent, and anxious [33,43,111] (personal observation).”
BackgroundYamagiwa, J., Tsubokawa, K., Inoue, E., & Ando, C. (2014) · Primates · doi:10.1007/s10329-014-0433-3 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Although such a small sample size (only 18 cases) could not examine the various hypotheses (Ruiz-Miranda et al. 1999; Brown et al. 2004; Hockings et al. 2007; van Noordwijk and van Schaik 2009) relevant to food transfer or sharing among gorillas, frequent social staring by non-possessors at the…”
Chimpanzee Velu: the wild chimpanzee who passed away at the estimated age of 58
Matsuzawa, T. (2018) · Primates · doi:10.1007/s10329-018-0654-y · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Self-citationPlacentophagy in wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) at Bossou, Guinea
Fujisawa, M., Hockings, K. J., Soumah, A. G., & Matsuzawa, T. (2016) · Primates · doi:10.1007/s10329-016-0510-x · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Self-citationCollective movement decision-making in primates in crop-raiding contexts
Anand, S., & Radhakrishna, S. (2022) · Behavioural Processes · doi:10.1016/j.beproc.2022.104604 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Byrnit, J., Høgh‐Olesen, H., & Makransky, G. (2015) · Journal of comparative psychology · doi:10.1037/a0039351 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Precursors of Morality – Evidence for Moral Behaviors in Non-human Primates
Brosnan, S. F. (2013) · Library of ethics and applied philosophy · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-01369-5_5 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
A review of great ape behavioural responses and their outcomes to anthropogenic landscapes
Gilbert, M. A., & Kalan, A. K. (2025) · Primates · doi:10.1007/s10329-025-01180-w · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Additionally, great can apes experience stress when engaging in crop foraging (Hockings et al. 2007, 2009; Krief et al. 2014) and it has been suggested that long-term exposure to stress hormones can degrade immune function, reproduction, and growth in wild animals (Hing et al. 2016; Kaisin et al.…”
InfluentialKrief, S., Špirhanzlová, P., Masi, S., Couturier, C., Okwir, E., Asalu, E., Paco Bustamante, A., & Costantini, D. (2023) · Environmental Science and Pollution Research · doi:10.1007/s11356-023-30187-3 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“In addition, feeding on anthropogenic food exposes crop feeders to direct threats, such as being chased, injured, and hunted (Carlitz et al. 2016; Hockings et al. 2007; Hyeroba et al. 2011).”
BackgroundNeves, E., Cherkaoui, S. I., Amhaouch, Z., Duperron, C., Ménard, N., & Gouar, P. L. (2024) · International Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1007/s10764-024-00422-w · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“…males, being larger and stronger, tend to engage in riskier behaviors than other age-sex classes, which involves more crop visits (chimpanzees: Hockings et al., 2007; olive baboons: Strum, 1994), spending more time in crops (vervets: Saj et al., 1999), and leading the group into crops (Buton…”
Dell’Anna, F., Llorente, M., Weiß, B., von Fersen, L., & Amici, F. (2019) · American Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1002/ajp.23078 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Education by Master-Apprenticeship
Matsuzawa, T. (2011) · Primatology monographs · doi:10.1007/978-4-431-53921-6_22 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citationHalloran, A. R., Cloutier, C. T., & Sesay, P. B. (2014) · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Chimpanzees – Investigating Cognition in the Wild
Wittig, R. M., & Crockford, C. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108333191.008 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
de Waal, F. Β. Μ. (2021) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2019.0663 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Call, J., & Tomasello, M. (2024) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198910626.001.0001 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Kaufhold, S. P., & Rossano, F. (2020) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2020.07.016 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Haider, S., De‐Pablos‐Heredero, C., & De-Pablos-Heredero, M. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.661715 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
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Tellier, M., Druelle, F., Cibot, M., Baruzaliire, J.-M., Sabiiti, T., & McLennan, M. R. (2025) · American Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1002/ajp.70000 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Nevertheless, males did not generally exhibit signs of anxiety when surveying for traffic or pedestrians (such as bipedalism [Pierce 2009; Krief et al. 2014] or self ‐ scratching [Aureli and de Waal 1997; Hockings et al. 2007]).”
InfluentialSauciuc, G.-A., & Persson, T. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1157137 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Based on the currently limited data, several functional hypotheses are simultaneously consistent with raided-crop sharing, including the costly signalling hypothesis, the food-for-sex hypothesis, and the food-for-grooming hypothesis (Hockings et al., 2007).”
BackgroundInfluentialHow context influences primates' decisions about reciprocity
Brosnan, S. F. (2024) · Ethology · doi:10.1111/eth.13433 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Peut-on étudier la morale chez les animaux ?
Bovet, D. (2012) · Études rurales · doi:10.4000/etudesrurales.9571 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Tomasello, M., & Call, J. (2024) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198910626.003.0001 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
- Authors
- Hockings, K. J., Humle, T., Anderson, J. R., Biro, D., Sousa, C., Ohashi, G., & Matsuzawa, T.
- Affiliations
- University of Stirling (GB)
- University of Wisconsin–Madison (US)
- University of Oxford (GB)
- Kyoto University (JP)
- Corresponding author
- Hockings, Kimberley J.
- Venue
- PLoS ONE
- Publisher
- Public Library of Science (PLoS)
- Published
- 2007-09-12
- Volume
- 2
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- e886
- ISSN
- 1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC1964537
- OpenAlex
- W2139162770
- Cited by
- 138
- References
- 28
- Citations by year
- 2025: 4 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 3 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 5 · 2017: 9 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 8 · 2014: 9 · 2013: 8 · 2012: 11
- FWCI
- 13.78
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Portuguese National Funding Agency for Science, Research and Technology (RCAAP Project by FCT) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Portuguese National Funding Agency for Science, Research and Technology (RCAAP Project by FCT) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Kent Academic Repository (University of Kent) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (#16002001)
- University of Stirling
- Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (16002001)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Primate Behavior and Ecology
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics › Animal Behavior and Reproduction
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Wildlife Ecology and Conservation
- Keywords
- chimpanzees, food sharing, wild plant foods, crop raiding, social bonds, showing off, male-female interaction, Bossou, anthropogenic landscapes, primate social behavior
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Behavior, Animal, Pan troglodytes, Female, Male, Social Behavior
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