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Chimpanzees Share Forbidden Fruit
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The sharing of wild plant foods is infrequent in chimpanzees, but in chimpanzee communities that engage in hunting, meat is frequently used as a 'social tool' for nurturing alliances and social bonds. Here we report the only recorded example of regular sharing of plant foods by unrelated, non-provisioned wild chimpanzees, and the contexts in which these sharing behaviours occur. From direct observations, adult chimpanzees at Bossou (Republic of Guinea, West Africa) very rarely transferred wild plant foods. In contrast, they shared cultivated plant foods much more frequently (58 out of 59 food sharing events). Sharing primarily consists of adult males allowing reproductively cycling females to take food that they possess. We propose that hypotheses focussing on 'food-for-sex and -grooming' and 'showing-off' strategies plausibly account for observed sharing behaviours. A changing human-dominated landscape presents chimpanzees with fresh challenges, and our observations suggest that crop-raiding provides adult male chimpanzees at Bossou with highly desirable food commodities that may be traded for other currencies.
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“Food sharing in chimpanzees, however, is not restricted to meat but has also been reported with non-meat foods, for example honey [52], or large fruits such as Carica papaya [57] or Treculia africana [52].”
From Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees (2014) · cites this paper as [57]
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“... (1994), Kuroda et al. (1996), Nishida and Turner (1996), Hemelrijk et al. (1999), Mitani and Watts (1999, 2001), Newton-Fisher (1999), Stanford (1999), Bethell et al. (2000), Nakamura and Itoh (2001), Hunt and McGrew (2002), Matsumoto-Oda (2002), Watts and Mitani (2002), Hirata and Celli (2003), Ueno and Matsuzawa…”
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Samuni, L., Preis, A., Mielke, A., Deschner, T., Wittig, R. M., & Crockford, C. (2018) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2018.1643 · Cited by 151
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BackgroundSelf-citationWild Chimpanzees on the Edge: Nocturnal Activities in Croplands
Krief, S., Cibot, M., Bortolamiol, S., Seguya, A., Krief, J.-M., & Masi, S. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0109925 · Cited by 130
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“…in giving and receiving commodities and services, such as food, grooming, agonistic support and mating (de Waal 1997; Mitani & Watts 2001; Koyama et al. 2006; Duffy et al. 2007; Hockings et al. 2007; but see also criticisms: Hammerstein 2003; Stevens 2004; Stevens & Gilby 2004; Gilby 2006).”
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Yamamoto, S. (2015) · BRILL eBooks · doi:10.1163/9789004304178_006 · Cited by 13
Male chimpanzees' grooming rates vary by female age, parity, and fertility status
Proctor, D. P., Lambeth, S. P., Schapiro, S. J., & Brosnan, S. F. (2011) · American Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1002/ajp.20964 · Cited by 13
How chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) share the spoils with collaborators and bystanders
John, M., Duguid, S., Tomasello, M., & Melis, A. P. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0222795 · Cited by 13
“There are examples of non-meat foods in the chimpanzee diet that are large and monopolizable or difficult to get, such as Treculia africana fruit or the proceeds of crop raiding, and these are more likely to be shared than other non-meat foods [24, 26] but there may be additional Fig 3.”
BackgroundTanaka, M., & Yamamoto, S. (2009) · Animal Cognition · doi:10.1007/s10071-009-0270-8 · Cited by 13
“The Xexibility might enable them to “share” various kinds of items between conspeciWcs (e.g., Hockings et al. 2007 ).”
BackgroundCourtesy food sharing characterized by begging for social bonds in wild bonobos
Yamamoto, S., & Furuichi, T. (2017) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198728511.003.0009 · Cited by 12
Satsias, Z. M., Silk, M. J., Hockings, K. J., Cibot, M., Rohen, J., & McLennan, M. R. (2022) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2022.01.016 · Cited by 11
Self-citationCouturier, C., Bortolamiol, S., Ortmann, S., Okimat, J. P., Asalu, E., & Krief, S. (2022) · Animals · doi:10.3390/ani12070806 · Cited by 14
“Nevertheless, in a crop-foraging context, chimpanzees can be vigilant, silent, and anxious [33,43,111] (personal observation).”
BackgroundYamagiwa, J., Tsubokawa, K., Inoue, E., & Ando, C. (2014) · Primates · doi:10.1007/s10329-014-0433-3 · Cited by 9
“Although such a small sample size (only 18 cases) could not examine the various hypotheses (Ruiz-Miranda et al. 1999; Brown et al. 2004; Hockings et al. 2007; van Noordwijk and van Schaik 2009) relevant to food transfer or sharing among gorillas, frequent social staring by non-possessors at the…”
Chimpanzee Velu: the wild chimpanzee who passed away at the estimated age of 58
Matsuzawa, T. (2018) · Primates · doi:10.1007/s10329-018-0654-y · Cited by 9
Self-citationPlacentophagy in wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) at Bossou, Guinea
Fujisawa, M., Hockings, K. J., Soumah, A. G., & Matsuzawa, T. (2016) · Primates · doi:10.1007/s10329-016-0510-x · Cited by 8
Self-citationCollective movement decision-making in primates in crop-raiding contexts
Anand, S., & Radhakrishna, S. (2022) · Behavioural Processes · doi:10.1016/j.beproc.2022.104604 · Cited by 8
Byrnit, J., Høgh‐Olesen, H., & Makransky, G. (2015) · Journal of comparative psychology · doi:10.1037/a0039351 · Cited by 8
Precursors of Morality – Evidence for Moral Behaviors in Non-human Primates
Brosnan, S. F. (2013) · Library of ethics and applied philosophy · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-01369-5_5 · Cited by 8
A review of great ape behavioural responses and their outcomes to anthropogenic landscapes
Gilbert, M. A., & Kalan, A. K. (2025) · Primates · doi:10.1007/s10329-025-01180-w · Cited by 7
“Additionally, great can apes experience stress when engaging in crop foraging (Hockings et al. 2007, 2009; Krief et al. 2014) and it has been suggested that long-term exposure to stress hormones can degrade immune function, reproduction, and growth in wild animals (Hing et al. 2016; Kaisin et al.…”
InfluentialKrief, S., Špirhanzlová, P., Masi, S., Couturier, C., Okwir, E., Asalu, E., Paco Bustamante, A., & Costantini, D. (2023) · Environmental Science and Pollution Research · doi:10.1007/s11356-023-30187-3 · Cited by 8
“In addition, feeding on anthropogenic food exposes crop feeders to direct threats, such as being chased, injured, and hunted (Carlitz et al. 2016; Hockings et al. 2007; Hyeroba et al. 2011).”
BackgroundNeves, E., Cherkaoui, S. I., Amhaouch, Z., Duperron, C., Ménard, N., & Gouar, P. L. (2024) · International Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1007/s10764-024-00422-w · Cited by 7
“…males, being larger and stronger, tend to engage in riskier behaviors than other age-sex classes, which involves more crop visits (chimpanzees: Hockings et al., 2007; olive baboons: Strum, 1994), spending more time in crops (vervets: Saj et al., 1999), and leading the group into crops (Buton…”
Dell’Anna, F., Llorente, M., Weiß, B., von Fersen, L., & Amici, F. (2019) · American Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1002/ajp.23078 · Cited by 7
Education by Master-Apprenticeship
Matsuzawa, T. (2011) · Primatology monographs · doi:10.1007/978-4-431-53921-6_22 · Cited by 7
Self-citationHalloran, A. R., Cloutier, C. T., & Sesay, P. B. (2014) · Cited by 6
Chimpanzees – Investigating Cognition in the Wild
Wittig, R. M., & Crockford, C. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108333191.008 · Cited by 6
de Waal, F. Β. Μ. (2021) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2019.0663 · Cited by 6
Call, J., & Tomasello, M. (2024) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198910626.001.0001 · Cited by 5
Kaufhold, S. P., & Rossano, F. (2020) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2020.07.016 · Cited by 5
Haider, S., De‐Pablos‐Heredero, C., & De-Pablos-Heredero, M. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.661715 · Cited by 5
Achorn, A. M., Lindshield, S. M., Ndiaye, P. I., Winking, J., & Pruetz, J. D. (2023) · American Journal of Biological Anthropology · doi:10.1002/ajpa.24815 · Cited by 4
Tellier, M., Druelle, F., Cibot, M., Baruzaliire, J.-M., Sabiiti, T., & McLennan, M. R. (2025) · American Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1002/ajp.70000 · Cited by 4
“Nevertheless, males did not generally exhibit signs of anxiety when surveying for traffic or pedestrians (such as bipedalism [Pierce 2009; Krief et al. 2014] or self ‐ scratching [Aureli and de Waal 1997; Hockings et al. 2007]).”
InfluentialSauciuc, G.-A., & Persson, T. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1157137 · Cited by 5
“Based on the currently limited data, several functional hypotheses are simultaneously consistent with raided-crop sharing, including the costly signalling hypothesis, the food-for-sex hypothesis, and the food-for-grooming hypothesis (Hockings et al., 2007).”
BackgroundInfluentialHow context influences primates' decisions about reciprocity
Brosnan, S. F. (2024) · Ethology · doi:10.1111/eth.13433 · Cited by 4
Peut-on étudier la morale chez les animaux ?
Bovet, D. (2012) · Études rurales · doi:10.4000/etudesrurales.9571 · Cited by 4
Tomasello, M., & Call, J. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198910626.003.0001 · Cited by 4
Metadata
- Authors
- Hockings, K. J., Humle, T., Anderson, J. R., Biro, D., Sousa, C., Ohashi, G., & Matsuzawa, T.
- Affiliations
- University of Stirling (GB)
- University of Wisconsin–Madison (US)
- University of Oxford (GB)
- Kyoto University (JP)
- Corresponding author
- Hockings, Kimberley J.
- Venue
- PLoS ONE
- Publisher
- Public Library of Science (PLoS)
- Published
- 2007-09-12
- Volume
- 2
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- e886
- ISSN
- 1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC1964537
- OpenAlex
- W2139162770
- Cited by
- 138
- References
- 28
- Citations by year
- 2025: 4 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 3 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 5 · 2017: 9 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 8 · 2014: 9 · 2013: 8 · 2012: 11
- FWCI
- 13.78
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Portuguese National Funding Agency for Science, Research and Technology (RCAAP Project by FCT) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Portuguese National Funding Agency for Science, Research and Technology (RCAAP Project by FCT) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Kent Academic Repository (University of Kent) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (#16002001)
- University of Stirling
- Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (16002001)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics › Primate Behavior and Ecology
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics › Animal Behavior and Reproduction
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Wildlife Ecology and Conservation
- Keywords
- chimpanzees, food sharing, wild plant foods, crop raiding, social bonds, showing off, male-female interaction, Bossou, anthropogenic landscapes, primate social behavior
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Behavior, Animal, Pan troglodytes, Female, Male, Social Behavior
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