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A Longitudinal Assessment of Sleep Timing, Circadian Phase, and Phase Angle of Entrainment across Human Adolescence
Open accessAbstract
The aim of this descriptive analysis was to examine sleep timing, circadian phase, and phase angle of entrainment across adolescence in a longitudinal study design. Ninety-four adolescents participated; 38 (21 boys) were 9-10 years ("younger cohort") and 56 (30 boys) were 15-16 years ("older cohort") at the baseline assessment. Participants completed a baseline and then follow-up assessments approximately every six months for 2.5 years. At each assessment, participants wore a wrist actigraph for at least one week at home to measure self-selected sleep timing before salivary dim light melatonin onset (DLMO) phase - a marker of the circadian timing system - was measured in the laboratory. Weekday and weekend sleep onset and offset and weekend-weekday differences were derived from actigraphy. Phase angles were the time durations from DLMO to weekday sleep onset and offset times. Each cohort showed later sleep onset (weekend and weekday), later weekend sleep offset, and later DLMO with age. Weekday sleep offset shifted earlier with age in the younger cohort and later in the older cohort after age 17. Weekend-weekday sleep offset differences increased with age in the younger cohort and decreased in the older cohort after age 17. DLMO to sleep offset phase angle narrowed with age in the younger cohort and became broader in the older cohort. The older cohort had a wider sleep onset phase angle compared to the younger cohort; however, an age-related phase angle increase was seen in the younger cohort only. Individual differences were seen in these developmental trajectories. This descriptive study indicated that circadian phase and self-selected sleep delayed across adolescence, though school-day sleep offset advanced until no longer in high school, whereupon offset was later. Phase angle changes are described as an interaction of developmental changes in sleep regulation interacting with psychosocial factors (e.g., bedtime autonomy).
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“In general, the timing of sleep onset and waking and other biological rhythms (for example, fluctuations in melatonin levels) is earlier relative to adults during early childhood8,9 and shifts later during adolescence, and this shift in timing may be conserved among rodents and non-human primates (NHPs)10.”
From Rhythms of life: circadian disruption and brain disorders across the lifespan (2019) · cites this paper as [10]
In the citing paper
“Early school start times, which are typically more than an hour earlier in US high schools (ages 15–18 years) than in elementary schools (ages 9–10 years) or middle schools (ages 11–13 years), may contribute to these problems of shorter sleep10,148.”
From Rhythms of life: circadian disruption and brain disorders across the lifespan (2019) · cites this paper as [10]
In the citing paper
“circadian rhythms naturally delay”
From Impact of Sleep and Circadian Rhythms on Addiction Vulnerability in Adolescents (2018) · cites this paper as [38]
In the citing paper
“Changes in sleep/circadian timing appear to result from both phase delays in the timing of the circadian clock (38), and a slower accumulation in homeostatic sleep drive (37).”
From Impact of Sleep and Circadian Rhythms on Addiction Vulnerability in Adolescents (2018) · cites this paper as [38]
In the citing paper
“Decreased sleep duration and increased sleep disturbance may be a consequence of delayed sleep timing, conflicting with school start times on weekdays, (typically earlier in high school than in elementary or middle school), resulting in circadian misalignment and sleep loss (38,45).”
From Impact of Sleep and Circadian Rhythms on Addiction Vulnerability in Adolescents (2018) · cites this paper as [38]
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“Indeed, less sleep during the schoolweek has been observed among school children, adolescents, and college students, using both reported and objective measures of sleep (Chang, Reid, Gourineni, & Zee, 2009; Crowley et al., 2014; Miller, Shattuck, & Matsangas, 2010; Tworoger et al., 2005; Yang et al., 2001).”
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“As youngsters transition from childhood through adolescence, bedtimes become later (Crowley et al. 2014).”
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“Ideally, a prospective study [34], would assess environmental factors, individual circadian phase (for example, by means of dim-light melatonin onset [38]), objective sleep behavior, as well as all established clinical and objective hormonal markers of pubertal development, and genetic information.”
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“Circadian alignment was assessed by calculating phase angle, which is duration of time between DLMO and average bedtime as recorded by sleep diary and between DLMO and average sleep onset as recorded by actigraphy (Crowley et al., 2014).”
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Escribano, C., & Díaz‐Morales, J. F. (2015) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.08.032 · Cited by 16
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“Based on data from preadolescents, we estimate that the onset of melatonin will occur about 1 hour before habitual bedtime.(61) Due to lack of data available on children, adult data(22) were used to hypothesize that melatonin offset would likely occur about an hour after wake in winter and about 30 minutes after wake…”
BackgroundSelf-citationAdvanced melatonin onset relative to sleep in women with unmedicated major depressive disorder
Coleman, M. Y., McGlashan, E. M., Vidafar, P., Phillips, A. J. K., & Cain, S. W. (2019) · Chronobiology International · doi:10.1080/07420528.2019.1644652 · Cited by 15
“, the amount of time) between melatonin onset and sleep onset is one such variable of interest in sleep and mood disorders (e.g., Burgess and Fogg 2008; Crowley et al. 2014; Naismith et al. 2012; Watson et al. 2018).”
BackgroundSleep improvements on days with later school starts persist after 1 year in a flexible start system
Biller, A. M., Molenda, C., Zerbini, G., Roenneberg, T., & Winnebeck, E. C. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-06209-4 · Cited by 17
“(1-10; very bad - very good) School start: F(1,27)= 24.”
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Disruptions in the Amount and Timing of Sleep and Repetitive Negative Thinking in Adolescents
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“Adolescence is a period marked by important shifts in sleep(Crowley et al., 2007; Tarokh et al., 2016; Crowley et al., 2018; Crowley et al., 2014).”
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Duraccio, K. M., Kamhout, S., Wright, I. D., Rugh, K. E., Miskin, J., & Amdal, M. (2023) · Frontiers in Sleep · doi:10.3389/frsle.2023.1177878 · Cited by 11
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Eto, T., Kitamura, S., Nishimura, K., Takeoka, K., Nishimura, Y., Lee, S., Ohashi, M., Shikano, A., Noi, S., & Higuchi, S. (2022) · Journal of PHYSIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY · doi:10.1186/s40101-022-00316-x · Cited by 11
“The finding of this study will contribute to an understanding of the mechanisms by which delayed circadian and sleep-wake rhythms develop in children in modern society [40, 41] and to the establishment of treatment for them [42].”
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“2017), a dramatic weekday sleep loss occurs due to confrontation between early school times and biological tendency of late adolescents to delay weekend sleep timing (Crowley et al. 2014).”
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Sleep quality and regular physical activity in reducing cardiac risk
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“Light exposure is gated by sleep-wake patterns, which change across the lifespan (Iglowstein et al., 2003; Crowley et al., 2014; Duffy et al., 2015).”
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Sleep Deficiency in Adolescents
Afolabi‐Brown, O., Moore, M. E., & Tapia, I. E. (2024) · Sleep Medicine Clinics · doi:10.1016/j.jsmc.2024.07.005 · Cited by 8
The Sleep, Recovery, and Nutrition Characteristics of Elite Adolescent Athletes
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“Additionally, adaptations to sleep regulation occur during adolescence [31], which increase sleep pressure tolerance [32], causing a circadian phase delay [33], thus compounding the bioregulatory, societal, and psychosocial pressures present during adolescence [34,35], creating an inadequate…”
Hasler, B. P., Oryshkewych, N., Wallace, M. L., Clark, D. B., Siegle, G. J., & Buysse, D. J. (2025) · SLEEP · doi:10.1093/sleep/zsaf031 · Cited by 8
Day-of-week mood patterns in adolescents considering chronotype, sleep length and sex
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Sleep Deficiency in Adolescents
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Self-citationMorning compared to afternoon school-based exercise on cognitive function in adolescents.
Ingham-Hill, E., Hewitt, A., Lester, A., & Bond, B. (2024) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2024.106135 · Cited by 8
Cross-national differences in adolescents’ sleep patterns: a time-use approach
Román, J. G., Gracia, P., & Zerbini, G. (2024) · International Journal of Adolescence and Youth · doi:10.1080/02673843.2024.2335198 · Cited by 10
“At the same time, sleep pressure builds-up slower, which keeps adolescents awake in the evening and further contributes to later sleep times (Carskadon, 2011; Crowley et al., 2014; Jenni et al., 2005).”
Asking the Clock: How to Use Information from Questionnaires for Circadian Phenotyping
Vetter, C., Winnebeck, E. C., & Roenneberg, T. (2020) · Methods in molecular biology · doi:10.1007/978-1-0716-0381-9_6 · Cited by 6
Cardiorespiratory fitness and circadian rhythms in adolescents: a pilot study
Chen, I. Y., Radom‐Aizik, S., Stehli, A., Palmer, J. R., Lui, K. K., Dave, A., Chappel-Farley, M. G., Vinces, K., Gealer, D., Lim, A., et al. (2023) · Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00291.2023 · Cited by 8
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ADHD symptoms in adults with delayed sleep phase disorder
Snitselaar, M. A., Smits, M. G., & Spijker, J. (2018) · Sleep and Biological Rhythms · doi:10.1007/s41105-018-0188-0 · Cited by 7
Sleep pattern and insomnia among medical students
Joshi, K., Mishra, D., Dubey, H., & Gupta, R. M. (2015) · Somnologie - Schlafforschung und Schlafmedizin · doi:10.1007/s11818-015-0012-x · Cited by 7
Data-driven mathematical modeling of sleep consolidation in early childhood
Athanasouli, C., Stowe, S. R., LeBourgeois, M. K., Booth, V., & Behn, C. D. (2024) · Journal of Theoretical Biology · doi:10.1016/j.jtbi.2024.111892 · Cited by 8
Self-citationChronotherapeutic Approaches to Target Insufficient and Late Sleep in Adolescents
Wescott, D. L., Quick, A. D., Oryshkewych, N., Wallace, M. L., Beebe, D. W., Buysse, D. J., Clark, D. B., Mirchandaney, R., & Hasler, B. P. (2026) · Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine · doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2026.0976 · Cited by 8
Panjeh, S., Pompéia, S., & Cogo‐Moreira, H. (2021) · Chronobiology International · doi:10.1080/07420528.2021.1998104 · Cited by 6
“Crowley et al. (2014), for instance, showed that the dim light melatonin onset to sleep offset phase-angle was broader in older than younger adolescents, indicating that there are other, non-circadian factors that influence the time of day that they fall asleep.”
BackgroundThe forbidden zone for sleep is more robust in adolescents compared to adults
Monterastelli, A. J., Adams, J. E., Eastman, C. I., & Crowley, S. J. (2024) · Frontiers in Sleep · doi:10.3389/frsle.2023.1304647 · Cited by 6
Self-citationRoy, J., Godin, R., Gaudreault, P., & Forest, G. (2023) · Chronobiology International · doi:10.1080/07420528.2023.2273828 · Cited by 7
“This algorithm has been used in several adolescent sleep studies and has demonstrated good validity (Crowley et al. 2014; Sadeh et al. 1994).”
BackgroundMethodLunn, J., & Chen, J.-Y. (2022) · Chronobiology International · doi:10.1080/07420528.2021.1998102 · Cited by 6
“A slower increase in homeostatic sleep pressure during wakefulness has been observed in young adult evening types (Taillard et al. 2003), and the rate of accumulation in homeostatic sleep pressure also slows through the adolescent period (Crowley et al. 2014).”
Backgroundvan der Laars, R., Bouter, D. C., Koopman‐Verhoeff, M. E., Zarchev, M. G., Ercan, S., Hoogendijk, W. J. G., & Mil, N. H. G. (2025) · Sleep Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.sleepe.2025.100107 · Cited by 5
Patterns of Sleep and Napping in Saudi Arabia: A Cross-sectional Evaluation
Bamagoos, A. A., Altayeb, A. A., Rawas, H. F., Alsulaimani, S. S., Basurrah, M. A., Aleissi, S. A., & Wali, S. (2025) · Saudi Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences · doi:10.4103/sjmms.sjmms_679_24 · Cited by 6
Charoenthammanon, R., & Gooley, J. (2025) · SLEEP Advances · doi:10.1093/sleepadvances/zpaf018 · Cited by 5
“Consistent with previous cross-sectional and longitudinal studies [15, 41, 57], sleep onset delayed by about 40–60 min from early to late adolescence.”
Perceptions of school start times and adolescent sleep by WHO region
Coussens, S. W., Kahn, M., Spruyt, K., Bin‐Hasan, S., Page, J., & Owens, J. A. (2026) · Sleep Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2026.108890 · Cited by 6
A longitudinal look at social jetlag, sex differences, and obesity risk
Shafer, B. M., McAuliffe, K., & McHill, A. W. (2023) · SLEEP · doi:10.1093/sleep/zsad298 · Cited by 5
Weekday and weekend sleep times across the human lifespan: a model-based simulation
Putilov, A. A., & Verevkin, E. G. (2024) · Sleep And Breathing · doi:10.1007/s11325-024-03124-y · Cited by 5
Holtman, S., Cooper, E., Brinton, J. T., Bowen, A. E., Hawkins, S., Cree‐Green, M., Nadeau, K. J., Wright, K. P., & Simon, S. L. (2024) · SLEEP · doi:10.1093/sleep/zsae273 · Cited by 7
Inazumi, C. K., Andrechuk, C. R. S., Lima, M. G., Zancanella, E., Barros, M. B. D. A., Cardoso, T. A. M. D. O., & Ceolim, M. F. (2020) · Applied Nursing Research · doi:10.1016/j.apnr.2020.151373 · Cited by 5
Formica, M., Fuller‐Tyszkiewicz, M., Hickie, I. B., OLIVE, L. S., Wood, S. J., Purcell, R., Yung, A. R., Phillips, L., Nelson, B., Pantelis, C., et al. (2023) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2023.07.019 · Cited by 5
Circadian Rhythms and Addiction
Barko, K., Shelton, M. A., Seggio, J. A., & Logan, R. W. (2018) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-812202-0.00013-0 · Cited by 7
Moreno, J. P., Dadabhoy, H., Musaad, S. M. A., Baranowski, T., Thompson, D. I., Alfano, C. A., & Crowley, S. J. (2022) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/37002 · Cited by 5
“Data collection will not occur within 1 week following the transition to Daylight Saving Time [36].”
Self-citationDésordre circadien du sommeil de l’adolescent: rôle du multimédia
Schroder, C. M. (2015) · Bulletin de l Académie Nationale de Médecine · doi:10.1016/s0001-4079(19)30853-2 · Cited by 5
Interconnection between adolescents’ and family members’ sleep
Reynaud, È., Berthier, J., Louis, E. D., Eyuboglu, E., Scelles, R., & Schroder, C. M. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-76597-2 · Cited by 4
Adolescent circadian rhythm disruption increases reward and risk-taking
DePoy, L. M., Vadnie, C. A., Petersen, K. A., Scott, M. R., Zong, W., Yin, R., Matthaei, R. C., Anaya, F. J., Kampe, C. I., Tseng, G. C., et al. (2024) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2024.1478508 · Cited by 5
Sleep Loss and Substance Use Disorders: An Issue from Adolescents to Adults
Equihua-Benítez, A. C., Espinoza-Abad, R., & García‐García, F. (2025) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs15020220 · Cited by 3
“…not only leads to insufficient sleep but also contributes to challenges falling asleep on school nights, daytime drowsiness during school days, and significant variations in sleep timing and duration between weekdays and weekends (Crowley et al., 2014; Gariepy et al., 2020; Vazsonyi et al., 2021).”
Yu, J. J., & Meng, X. (2024) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2024.108384 · Cited by 4
Li, X., Einfeld, S., Stancliffe, R. J., & Hodge, M. A. (2025) · Journal of Intellectual & Developmental Disability · doi:10.3109/13668250.2024.2446215 · Cited by 4
田村, 典., Tanaka, H., Komada, Y., Narisawa, H., & Inoue, Y. (2019) · The Japanese journal of psychology · doi:10.4992/jjpsy.90.18045 · Cited by 4
Putilov, A. A. (2021) · Neuroscience and Behavioral Physiology · doi:10.1007/s11055-021-01187-y · Cited by 5
“Thus, it is sleep loss rather than jet lag that causes what American investigators of this chronopsychological problem termed an “epidemic of sleep deprivation in adolescents” (Carskadon, 2011; Crowley et al., 2014].”
BackgroundNaturalistic Sleep Patterns are Linked to Global Structural Brain Aging in Adolescence
Soehner, A. M., Hayes, R. A., Franzen, P. L., Goldstein, T. R., Hasler, B. P., Buysse, D. J., Siegle, G. J., Dahl, R. E., Forbes, E. E., Ladouceur, C. D., et al. (2022) · Journal of Adolescent Health · doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2022.08.022 · Cited by 5
A novel home-based study of circadian rhythms: design, rationale, and methods for the Circadia study
Vlasac, I., Bormes, G., Do, E., Benkhoukha, S. S., Diallo, N., Fryou, N. L., Gioia, S., Akeju, O., Joseph, C., Kuan, A., et al. (2023) · SLEEP · doi:10.1093/sleep/zsad197 · Cited by 5
The Role of the Sleep-Wake Cycle in Adolescent Mental Illness
Wilson, C. E., Carpenter, J. S., & Hickie, I. B. (2019) · Current Sleep Medicine Reports · doi:10.1007/s40675-019-00145-y · Cited by 5
Comparison of Aggression and Sleep Habits of Athlete and Non-Athlete Children
Zokaei, H., & Saber, F. A. (2020) · Quarterly Journal of Child Mental Health · doi:10.52547/jcmh.7.3.13 · Cited by 4
Self-Directed Home-Based Dim-Light Melatonin Onset Collection: The Circadia Pilot StudyPreprint
Bormes, G., Love, J. J., Akeju, O., Cherry, J., Kunorozva, L., Qadri, S., Rahman, S. A., Westover, M. B., Winkelman, J. W., & Lane, J. M. (2023) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2023.05.26.23290467 · Cited by 4
Perceived recovery-stress states and sleep in pre- and post-menarche elite youth swimmers
Kullik, L., Kiel, A., Kellmann, M., & Jakowski, S. (2025) · International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1612197x.2025.2481451 · Cited by 3
“Increased stress levels accompany these changes due to family, academic, and social pressures (Bourdon et al., 2017; Crowley et al., 2014).”
Tang, C., Meredith-Jones, K., Haszard, J. J., Signal, T. L., Wickham, S.-R., Muller, D., Taylor, R. W., & Galland, B. C. (2025) · Sleep Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2025.106605 · Cited by 3
Development of evening sleep homeostatic pressure in early adolescent boys
Reynolds, C. M., Short, M. A., Kahn, M., Richardson, C. E., Heath, M., Whittall, H., Lack, L. C., & Gradisar, M. (2023) · Sleep Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2023.07.019 · Cited by 3
Metadata
- Authors
- Crowley, S. J., Van Reen, E., LeBourgeois, M. K., Acebo, C., Tarokh, L., Seifer, R., Barker, D. H., & Carskadon, M. A.
- Affiliations
- Rush University Medical Center (US)
- University of Colorado Boulder (US)
- Brown University (US)
- University of Bern (CH)
- University of South Australia (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Crowley, Stephanie J.
- ORCID
- Venue
- PLoS ONE
- Publisher
- Public Library of Science (PLoS)
- Published
- 2014-11-07
- Volume
- 9
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- e112199
- ISSN
- 1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4224451
- OpenAlex
- W2090080078
- Cited by
- 273
- References
- 60
- Citations by year
- 2026: 27 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 31 · 2022: 25 · 2021: 26 · 2020: 22 · 2019: 33 · 2018: 25 · 2017: 21 · 2016: 15 · 2015: 8
- FWCI
- 7.15
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- BORIS (University Library Bern) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- UniSA Research Outputs Repository (University of South Australia) (submittedVersion)
- Open Access CRIS of the University of Bern
- Funders
- Brown University
- Jazz Pharmaceuticals
- National Institutes of Health
- National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (AA 13252, R01AA013252)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Circadian rhythm and melatonin
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Sleep and related disorders
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Sleep and Wakefulness Research
- Keywords
- sleep timing, circadian phase, adolescence, dim light melatonin onset, sleep onset, sleep offset, circadian entrainment, salivary melatonin
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Aging, Child, Circadian Rhythm, Female, Humans, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Melatonin, Saliva, Sex Characteristics, Sleep, Time Factors, Actigraphy
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