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A Longitudinal Assessment of Sleep Timing, Circadian Phase, and Phase Angle of Entrainment across Human Adolescence
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The aim of this descriptive analysis was to examine sleep timing, circadian phase, and phase angle of entrainment across adolescence in a longitudinal study design. Ninety-four adolescents participated; 38 (21 boys) were 9-10 years ("younger cohort") and 56 (30 boys) were 15-16 years ("older cohort") at the baseline assessment. Participants completed a baseline and then follow-up assessments approximately every six months for 2.5 years. At each assessment, participants wore a wrist actigraph for at least one week at home to measure self-selected sleep timing before salivary dim light melatonin onset (DLMO) phase - a marker of the circadian timing system - was measured in the laboratory. Weekday and weekend sleep onset and offset and weekend-weekday differences were derived from actigraphy. Phase angles were the time durations from DLMO to weekday sleep onset and offset times. Each cohort showed later sleep onset (weekend and weekday), later weekend sleep offset, and later DLMO with age. Weekday sleep offset shifted earlier with age in the younger cohort and later in the older cohort after age 17. Weekend-weekday sleep offset differences increased with age in the younger cohort and decreased in the older cohort after age 17. DLMO to sleep offset phase angle narrowed with age in the younger cohort and became broader in the older cohort. The older cohort had a wider sleep onset phase angle compared to the younger cohort; however, an age-related phase angle increase was seen in the younger cohort only. Individual differences were seen in these developmental trajectories. This descriptive study indicated that circadian phase and self-selected sleep delayed across adolescence, though school-day sleep offset advanced until no longer in high school, whereupon offset was later. Phase angle changes are described as an interaction of developmental changes in sleep regulation interacting with psychosocial factors (e.g., bedtime autonomy).
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![Figure 3 A proposed model to explain phase angle to sleep onset differences in the younger (top) and older (bottom) adolescent cohorts. Black horizontal bars illustrate average sleep times for each cohort (younger: 21:55–06:35; older: 23:02–06:40). Bold lines illustrate sleep pressure accumulation and dissipation functions predicted by the homeostatic sleep system. The upward facing arrow indicates the average DLMO phase for each age group (younger: 20:42; older: 20:54), and the right-facing block arrow shows the interval between DLMO phase and sleep onset (phase angle to sleep onset). Based on previous modeling work, [27] the saturating exponential function reaches it maximum more quickly and therefore at an earlier clock time in the younger cohort compared to the older cohort. We propose that the older adolescents are able to stay awake for a longer period of time (∼2 h) after DLMO phase compared to the younger adolescents (∼1 h) because of this developmental difference in homeostatic sleep pressure at the end of the waking day.](/paper-figures/3541c22d806f4e9e8531eb3570c4fd3a/a-longitudinal-assessment-of-sleep-timing-circadian-phase-and-phase-angle-of-figure-3.jpg)
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“In general, the timing of sleep onset and waking and other biological rhythms (for example, fluctuations in melatonin levels) is earlier relative to adults during early childhood8,9 and shifts later during adolescence, and this shift in timing may be conserved among rodents and non-human primates (NHPs)10.”
From Rhythms of life: circadian disruption and brain disorders across the lifespan (2019) · cites this paper as [10]
In the citing paper
“Early school start times, which are typically more than an hour earlier in US high schools (ages 15–18 years) than in elementary schools (ages 9–10 years) or middle schools (ages 11–13 years), may contribute to these problems of shorter sleep10,148.”
From Rhythms of life: circadian disruption and brain disorders across the lifespan (2019) · cites this paper as [10]
In the citing paper
“circadian rhythms naturally delay”
From Impact of Sleep and Circadian Rhythms on Addiction Vulnerability in Adolescents (2018) · cites this paper as [38]
In the citing paper
“Changes in sleep/circadian timing appear to result from both phase delays in the timing of the circadian clock (38), and a slower accumulation in homeostatic sleep drive (37).”
From Impact of Sleep and Circadian Rhythms on Addiction Vulnerability in Adolescents (2018) · cites this paper as [38]
In the citing paper
“Decreased sleep duration and increased sleep disturbance may be a consequence of delayed sleep timing, conflicting with school start times on weekdays, (typically earlier in high school than in elementary or middle school), resulting in circadian misalignment and sleep loss (38,45).”
From Impact of Sleep and Circadian Rhythms on Addiction Vulnerability in Adolescents (2018) · cites this paper as [38]
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InfluentialWieland, C., Friedrich, M., Sender, A., Leuteritz, K., Brock, H., Geue, K., Mehnert, A., & Richter, D. (2026) · Journal of Cancer Research and Clinical Oncology · doi:10.1007/s00432-026-06627-1
“AYA patients are at an elevated biological and behavioral risk for circadian dysregulation and short sleep due to the shift in circadian rhythm and self-selected bedtime that occurs during adolescence and young adulthood (Hagenauer et al. 2009; Crowley et al. 2014).”
Rivas, M. F., Campos-Rius, J., Mendoza-Puente, M., Ocete, C., Pinilla, J., & Calero-Cano, J. C. (2026) · Biological Rhythm Research · doi:10.1080/09291016.2026.2737427
The ontogeny of circadian–social coupling
Confino, S., & Zada, D. (2026) · Trends Open · doi:10.1016/j.treopn.2026.09.004
Rawcliffe, A. J., Martin, H., Ratna, E., Salt, B., Weaver, J., & Roberts, A. (2026) · SLEEP · doi:10.1093/sleep/zsag263
Kamhout, S., Bellini, S. G., Luke, S. G., Homer, K. J., Broadbent, M., & Duraccio, K. M. (2026) · Frontiers in Nutrition · doi:10.3389/fnut.2026.1978612
Metadata
- Authors
- Crowley, S. J., Van Reen, E., LeBourgeois, M. K., Acebo, C., Tarokh, L., Seifer, R., Barker, D. H., & Carskadon, M. A.
- Affiliations
- Rush University Medical Center (US)
- University of Colorado Boulder (US)
- Brown University (US)
- University of Bern (CH)
- University of South Australia (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Crowley, Stephanie J.
- ORCID
- Venue
- PLoS ONE
- Publisher
- Public Library of Science (PLoS)
- Published
- 2014-11-07
- Volume
- 9
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- e112199
- ISSN
- 1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4224451
- OpenAlex
- W2090080078
- Cited by
- 273
- References
- 60
- Citations by year
- 2026: 27 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 31 · 2022: 25 · 2021: 26 · 2020: 22 · 2019: 33 · 2018: 25 · 2017: 21 · 2016: 15 · 2015: 8
- FWCI
- 7.15
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- BORIS (University Library Bern) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- UniSA Research Outputs Repository (University of South Australia) (submittedVersion)
- Open Access CRIS of the University of Bern
- Funders
- Brown University
- Jazz Pharmaceuticals
- National Institutes of Health
- National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (AA 13252, R01AA013252)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Circadian rhythm and melatonin
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Sleep and related disorders
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Sleep and Wakefulness Research
- Keywords
- sleep timing, circadian phase, adolescence, dim light melatonin onset, sleep onset, sleep offset, circadian entrainment, salivary melatonin
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Aging, Child, Circadian Rhythm, Female, Humans, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Melatonin, Saliva, Sex Characteristics, Sleep, Time Factors, Actigraphy
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