Forest Loss in Protected Areas and Intact Forest Landscapes: A Global Analysis
Open accessAbstract
In spite of the high importance of forests, global forest loss has remained alarmingly high during the last decades. Forest loss at a global scale has been unveiled with increasingly finer spatial resolution, but the forest extent and loss in protected areas (PAs) and in large intact forest landscapes (IFLs) have not so far been systematically assessed. Moreover, the impact of protection on preserving the IFLs is not well understood. In this study we conducted a consistent assessment of the global forest loss in PAs and IFLs over the period 2000-2012. We used recently published global remote sensing based spatial forest cover change data, being a uniform and consistent dataset over space and time, together with global datasets on PAs' and IFLs' locations. Our analyses revealed that on a global scale 3% of the protected forest, 2.5% of the intact forest, and 1.5% of the protected intact forest were lost during the study period. These forest loss rates are relatively high compared to global total forest loss of 5% for the same time period. The variation in forest losses and in protection effect was large among geographical regions and countries. In some regions the loss in protected forests exceeded 5% (e.g. in Australia and Oceania, and North America) and the relative forest loss was higher inside protected areas than outside those areas (e.g. in Mongolia and parts of Africa, Central Asia, and Europe). At the same time, protection was found to prevent forest loss in several countries (e.g. in South America and Southeast Asia). Globally, high area-weighted forest loss rates of protected and intact forests were associated with high gross domestic product and in the case of protected forests also with high proportions of agricultural land. Our findings reinforce the need for improved understanding of the reasons for the high forest losses in PAs and IFLs and strategies to prevent further losses.
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Our results provide regional support for agricultural expansion and urban expansion being unambiguously linked to forest loss inside protected areas globally.
“Our results provide regional support for agricultural expansion and 'Urban expansion' being unambiguously linked to forest loss inside protected areas globally (Heino et al. 2015).”
From Forest loss during 2000–2019 in pygmy hippopotamus (<i>Choeropsis liberiensis</i>) habitats was driven by shifting agriculture (2024) · cites this paper as Heino et al. 2015
The Results (page not available) report a positive association between agricultural land area and forest loss in protected forests, but agricultural land growth was associated only with loss in protected intact forests. The Introduction mentions proximity to urban areas in relation to deforestation generally, not urban expansion inside protected areas. The Conclusions caution that the statistical associations did not always correspond to causal explanations, so the claimed unambiguous global link is overstated. (LLM, conf=0.88)
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“2014), protected-area type in Thailand (Sims 2014), GDP (Heino et al. 2015), management effectiveness in Cambodia (Beauchamp, Clements, and Milner-Gulland 2018), and across space and time in Panama (Haruna et al.”
BackgroundConservation significance of intact forest landscapes in the Scandinavian Mountains Green Belt
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“Furthermore, the remaining area of wildlands in the TransMexican Volcanic Belt that could be put under protecting is diminishing (Harvey et al., 2008; Heino et al., 2015).”
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“Instead of changing their practices, agents of deforestation may simply shift the location of their activities to continue to deforest outside of the conservation area (Henders & Ostwald, 2012).”
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The disappearing Dry Chaco, one of the last dry forest systems on earth
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“Habitat degradation and wild population declines within and outside protected areas are a major concern for this region (Leisher et al. 2013; Heino et al. 2015) and the high rate of environmental degradation and biodiversity loss is mainly due to resource exploitation (Ceballos et al.”
BackgroundEffects of spatial autocorrelation and sampling design on estimates of protected area effectiveness
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“However, the extent to which PAs deliver conservation outcomes is debated, particularly in relation to preventing loss of natural ecosystems (Geldmann et al. 2013, 2019; Heino et al. 2015; Jones et al. 2018).”
BackgroundInfluentialChallenges for the Sustainable Management of the Boreal Forest Under Climate Change
Girona, M. M., Aakala, T., Aquilué, N., Bélisle, A. C., Chaste, É., Danneyrolles, V., Díaz‐Yáñez, O., D’Orangeville, L., Grosbois, G., Hester, A. J., et al. (2023) · Advances in global change research · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-15988-6_31 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
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“There are few studies showing the effectiveness and success of community forests and protected areas in reducing forest loss [34,35].”
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“Of the approximately 2.2 Mha of IFLs that were lost annually between 2000 and 2012, over 20% took place inside protected areas (Heino et al., 2015).”
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“…status has not been able to prevent loss of natural habitats inside Europe’s protected areas, jeopardizing their ecological functions and their connectivity between areas of the network for wide-ranging species (Traba et al., 2007; Guixé & Arroyo, 2011; Heino et al., 2015; Hellwig et al., 2019).”
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“The published report indicates the deforestation and biodiversity loss in Southeast Asia is the highest in the world [45,46], and we are losing our quality wildlife habitats.”
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“However, the protection effect of FPAs is questioned (Heino et al., 2015), with smaller protected areas often under great threat (Maiorano et al.”
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“, [11], rapid population growth is correlated with the forest losses over the whole Albertine Rift region [12].”
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“In fact, relative forest losses in protected areas partly exceeded those in non-protected areas at national scale [25].”
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“This may appear substantial, but is much lower than the 3 per cent of forest cover lost in protected areas globally during the same time period (Heino et al., 2015; Morales -Hidalgo et al., 2015).”
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“In addition, it is important to note that in some regions, such as tropical regions of Africa, Asia and South America, PAs are not sufficiently effective in halting deforestation (Heino et al., 2015).”
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“Majority of the intact protected forests are tropical and sub-tropical forests or exists in the form of boreal forests [12, 13].”
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“Tropical intact forest landscapes alone store 97 Gt of carbon, but between 2000 and 2016 there was a 7.2% loss in intact forestland and 60% of this came from tropical areas, particularly South America (Heino et al. 2015; Potapov et al. 2017: 2).”
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“Most protected areas prevent extensive land-use change within their boundaries, providing vital habitat for wildlife in the face of an expanding human footprint (Geldmann et al., 2013; Heino et al., 2015).”
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“Among tropical forest regions worldwide, Southeast Asia has the greatest rates of deforestation and, consequently, the lowest proportion of forest cover remaining (Heino et al., 2015; Miettinen et al., 2011; Wilcove et al., 2013).”
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“We did, however, only consider areas with >20% tree cover (following [34,35]) and higher than 5 m (part of Hansen’s et al.”
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“Highly efficient single-use systems have caused extensive landscape change over vast areas in many regions worldwide; for example, in industrial rotation forestry systems in northern Sweden and elsewhere in forest-rich regions where previously natural and semi-natural intact forest landscapes have been transformed int…”
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“These countries were chosen because their territories contain a large area of tropical forests with high biodiversity value and historically have been affected by many direct and indirect drivers of deforestation, such as illegal timber extraction, lack of governance and illicit crops (Hansen et al. 2013; Coca Castro…”
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“…product’s forest loss information has been used to assess the effectiveness of international conservation aid (Bare et al. 2015), protected areas (Heino et al. 2015; Spracklen et al. 2015; Bowker et al. 2017) and sustainable forest management (Brandt et al. 2016) on reducing deforestation rates.”
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Effectiveness of protected areas in preventing forest loss in a tropical mountain region
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“It is claimed that that SE Asian protected areas were performing comparatively well relative to other parts of the world in terms of protecting forests (Hughes 2017; Heino et al. 2015).”
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Loss of forest intactness elevates global extinction risk in birds
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“The area of IFL is declining as forests become increasingly fragmented, disturbed and opened up by roads (Heino et al., 2015; Kleinschroth et al., 2017; Potapov et al., 2017); between 2000 and 2013, 7.”
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“For areas that are listed as WNHS by bioecological value standards (ix, x), the recorded information can then be used to demonstrate a WNHS’s OUV with regard to its species biodiversity, species composition, flora and vegetation type [24,25,28,33].”
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BackgroundSelf-citationA look at Intact Forest Landscapes (IFLs) and their relevance in Central African forest policy
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“[33]) in the 1990s, justifying its inclusion in the system of protected areas in 2015, but the forest loss in this area accelerated since 2005, especially during the last two years of analysis when all the four cases were under formal protection.”
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“As forests and forest landscapes in Europe have been largely transformed during the twentieth century era of industrial forest management, old-growth and naturally dynamic forests are rare or missing and, consequently, recognized as priority conservation entities (Sabatini et al.”
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Forest-Cover Changes in European Natura 2000 Sites in the Period 2012–2018
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“However, human pressure on PAs increased in the last two decades, especially in some areas of the world, suggesting that the effectiveness of PAs is not globally homogeneous [3,4].”
BackgroundChanges in Regional Practices and Their Effects on the Water Quality of Portuguese Reservoirs
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- Authors
- Heino, M., Kummu, M., Makkonen, M., Mulligan, M., Verburg, P. H., Jalava, M., & Räsänen, T. A.
- Affiliations
- Aalto University (FI)
- Natural Resources Institute Finland (FI)
- King's College London (GB)
- Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam (NL)
- Corresponding author
- Kummu, Matti
- ORCID
- Venue
- PLOS ONE
- Publisher
- Public Library of Science (PLoS)
- Published
- 2015-10-14
- Volume
- 10
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- e0138918
- ISSN
- 1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4605629
- OpenAlex
- W2211614845
- Cited by
- 192
- References
- 48
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 18 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 14 · 2021: 25 · 2020: 30 · 2019: 26 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 9 · 2016: 9 · 2015: 3
- FWCI
- 9.57
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- VU Research Portal (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- Jukuri (Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke)) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Aaltodoc (Aalto University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Jukuri (Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke)) (submittedVersion)
- Research Portal (King's College London) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- Academy of Finland (267463, 257919)
- Aalto-Yliopisto
- China Scholarship Council
- FP7 Ideas: European Research Council (311819)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Conservation, Biodiversity, and Resource Management
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Land Use and Ecosystem Services
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Forest Management and Policy
- Keywords
- forest loss, protected areas, intact forest landscapes, forest cover change, protected area effectiveness, gross domestic product, agricultural land, deforestation
- MeSH terms
- Africa, Agriculture, Americas, Asia, Australia, Conservation of Natural Resources, Europe, Humans, Trees, Forestry, Geographic Information Systems, Remote Sensing Technology, Forests
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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