Optimizing household survey methods to monitor the Sustainable Development Goals targets 6.1 and 6.2 on drinking water, sanitation and hygiene: A mixed-methods field-test in Belize
Open accessAbstract
BACKGROUND: The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) require household survey programmes such as the UNICEF-supported Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS) to enhance data collection to cover new indicators. This study aims to evaluated methods for assessing water quality, water availability, emptying of sanitation facilities, menstrual hygiene management and the acceptability of water quality testing in households which are key to monitoring SDG targets 6.1 and 6.2 on drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) and emerging issues. METHODS: As part of a MICS field test, we interviewed 429 households and 267 women age 15-49 in Stann Creek, Belize in a split-sample experiment. In a concurrent qualitative component, we conducted focus groups with interviewers and cognitive interviews with respondents during and immediately following questionnaire administration in the field to explore their question comprehension and response processes. FINDINGS: About 88% of respondents agreed to water quality testing but also desired test results, given the potential implications for their own health. Escherichia coli was present in 36% of drinking water collected at the source, and in 47% of samples consumed in the household. Both questions on water availability necessitated probing by interviewers. About one quarter of households reported emptying of pit latrines and septic tanks, though one-quarter could not provide an answer to the question. Asking questions on menstrual hygiene was acceptable to respondents, but required some clarification and probing. CONCLUSIONS: In the context of Belize, this study confirmed the feasibility of collecting information on the availability and quality of drinking water, emptying of sanitation facilities and menstrual hygiene in a multi-purpose household survey, indicating specific areas to improve question formulation and field protocols. Improvements have been incorporated into the latest round of MICS surveys which will be a major source of national data for monitoring of SDG targets for drinking water, sanitation and hygiene and emerging issues for WASH sector programming.
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This mixed-methods field test in Stann Creek, Belize assessed new MICS questionnaire modules and protocols for monitoring SDG WASH targets 6.1 and 6.2. It found that water quality testing, water availability questions, sanitation emptying questions, and menstrual hygiene questions were feasible in a household survey, but several items needed clearer wording, probing, and revised field protocols.
Key findings
- Water quality testing was acceptable: about 88% of respondents agreed to testing, but many wanted results; *E. coli* was present in 36% of drinking water collected at the source and 47% of samples consumed in the household.
- The two water availability questions produced similar results—12% in sample 1 reported being unable to access sufficient water in the last month, and 10% in sample 2 said water was not always available—but WS5C required more interviewer clarification/probing (23.3%) than WS5E (15.0%).
- For onsite sanitation, 53.4% of pit latrines/septic tanks had never been emptied, 23.5% of respondents did not know or were missing, and among households where emptying occurred, 92.7% reported mechanical emptying by a service provider.
- Menstrual hygiene questions were acceptable: 95% of women had a private place to wash and 98% had access to materials; disposal was mainly in a special bin (52.3%), latrine (16.8%), or by burning (14.5%), while UN15 required clarification/probing in 51.7% of cases.
- Combining SDG criteria, 57.1% of household members had safely managed drinking water, compared with 98.0% using an improved source under the MDG indicator.
Methods
- Mixed-methods field test in Stann Creek district, Belize, November–December 2015, using a representative household survey with a 2-stage probability design: 20 census enumeration areas, 30 households per area, split into two samples by even/odd numbering; 429 households and 267 women age 15–49 were interviewed.
- Water was tested for *E. coli* at point of collection and point of consumption using a portable EZ-Fit/Millipore kit, 100 ml filtration, Compact Dry EC media, incubation, and colony counts categorized as low, moderate, high, or very high risk.
- Qualitative components included 17 cognitive interviews with respondents and two focus groups with interviewers; quantitative analysis used STATA 14 with non-response weights, and qualitative text was analyzed in Nvivo 10 alongside behavior coding.
Limitations
- The paper states that survey data are representative only of Stann Creek district, Belize; because MICS surveys occur in varied contexts, the field test may not have identified all challenges with the new topics.
- The paper states that WASH services in Stann Creek are better than in many parts of the world, limiting generalisability—water was available in almost all cases, and most women had improved sanitation and used disposable materials.
- The paper states that the cognitive interviews and two focus groups covered many new MICS topics and, with limited numbers, may not have reached saturation on every topic; evident from the text, the qualitative sample was small and behavior coding was self-coded by interviewers rather than observed.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
Integrity signals
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Claims the paper makes
0 of 22 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged
- Findingown data
The two water availability questions produced similar results.
“The two questions produced similar results; in sample 1, 12 percent of households did not have water at any time in the last month while in sample 2, 10 percent of households said that water was not always available.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Asking questions on menstrual hygiene required some clarification and probing.
“Asking questions on menstrual hygiene was acceptable to respondents, but required some clarification and probing.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Interviewer self-coding of behaviour accurately captures question-response problems.
- Findingown data
About one quarter of households could not provide an answer to the question on emptying of pit latrines and septic tanks.
“About one quarter of households reported emptying of pit latrines and septic tanks, though one-quarter could not provide an answer to the question.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
About 88% of respondents agreed to water quality testing.
“About 88% of respondents agreed to water quality testing but also desired test results, given the potential implications for their own health.”
- Also stated in: § Testing water for E. coli in households: Respondent and interviewer experiences · plain
“Overall, respondents readily accepted to have their water tested for E. coli.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Also stated in: § Testing water for E. coli in households: Respondent and interviewer experiences · plain
- Findingown data
Escherichia coli was present in 36% of drinking water collected at the source.
“Escherichia coli was present in 36% of drinking water collected at the source, and in 47% of samples consumed in the household.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The portable water testing kit and incubation procedure accurately detect E. coli in drinking water.
- Findingown data
About one quarter of households reported emptying of pit latrines and septic tanks.
“About one quarter of households reported emptying of pit latrines and septic tanks, though one-quarter could not provide an answer to the question.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Respondents desired water quality test results to be communicated to them, often citing importance to their own and their families' health.
“About 88% of respondents agreed to water quality testing but also desired test results, given the potential implications for their own health.”
- Also stated in: § Testing water for E. coli in households: Respondent and interviewer experiences · plain
“All desired test results to be communicated to them, often citing that they were important to the health of their families.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The 17 cognitive interviews and two focus groups provided sufficient information to evaluate question quality.
- Also stated in: § Testing water for E. coli in households: Respondent and interviewer experiences · plain
- Findingown data
When respondents were informed that they would not receive results, many expressed discontent.
“When respondents were informed that they would not receive results, many expressed their discontent.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The 17 cognitive interviews and two focus groups provided sufficient information to evaluate question quality.
- Findingown data
Escherichia coli was present in 47% of drinking water samples consumed in the household.
“Escherichia coli was present in 36% of drinking water collected at the source, and in 47% of samples consumed in the household.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The portable water testing kit and incubation procedure accurately detect E. coli in drinking water.
- Findingown data
In sample 1, 12 percent of households did not have water at any time in the last month.
“The two questions produced similar results; in sample 1, 12 percent of households did not have water at any time in the last month while in sample 2, 10 percent of households said that water was not always available.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Asking questions on menstrual hygiene was acceptable to respondents.
“Asking questions on menstrual hygiene was acceptable to respondents, but required some clarification and probing.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The 17 cognitive interviews and two focus groups provided sufficient information to evaluate question quality.
- Findingown data
Finding a flat work space on which to conduct the water test proved challenging in some households.
“Data collectors concluded that testing the water in the household was feasible but that finding a flat work space on which to conduct the test proved challenging in some households”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The 17 cognitive interviews and two focus groups provided sufficient information to evaluate question quality.
- Findingown data
Not receiving results was confusing to respondents.
“That they did not receive results was confusing to respondents.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The 17 cognitive interviews and two focus groups provided sufficient information to evaluate question quality.
- Findingnone given
Both water availability questions required probing by interviewers.
“Both questions on water availability necessitated probing by interviewers.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Interviewer self-coding of behaviour accurately captures question-response problems.
- Findingown data
Behaviour coding indicated that in about one quarter of the cases, the interviewer had to provide clarification or probe further.
“Behaviour coding indicated that in about one quarter of the cases, the interviewer had to provide clarification or probe further (see Table 3).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
About half of women used a 'special bin with a lid' to dispose of menstrual materials.
“About half of women used a ‘special bin with a lid’ to dispose of the menstrual materials”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Interviewers in one focus group identified that respondents found the question inapplicable to pit latrines as the usual practice is to cover the hole when it is full and make a new one.
“Interviewers in one focus group identified that respondents found the question inapplicable to pit latrines as the usual practice is to cover the hole when it is full and make a new one.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
36% of household members collected water from a drinking water source with detectable E. coli.
“Overall, one third (36 percent) of household members collected water from a drinking water source with detectable E. coli”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
98% of women age 15-49 interviewed had access to materials for managing their periods.
“nearly all had access to materials for managing their periods (98 percent).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
In sample 2, 10 percent of households said that water was not always available.
“The two questions produced similar results; in sample 1, 12 percent of households did not have water at any time in the last month while in sample 2, 10 percent of households said that water was not always available.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The proportion of samples with detectable E. coli in drinking water increased between the point of collection and the point of consumption in the household.
“The proportion of samples with detectable E. coli levels in drinking water increased between the point of collection and the point of consumption in the household (Fig 1).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Respondents were able to understand key elements of the question, such as having sufficient water and having it when needed.
“respondents were able to understand key elements of the question, such as having sufficient water and having it when needed”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The term 'private' seemed to cause some confusion.
“The term ‘private’ seemed to cause some confusion”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Only a small minority of women and girls in this study had difficulties with MHM issues.
“Only a small minority of women and girls in this study had difficulties with these issues”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The term 'materials' (UN15) was not well-understood.
“The focus groups also pointed out that the term “materials” (UN15) was not well-understood, in agreement to the behaviour coding.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
14% of women disposed of menstrual materials in a latrine.
“while 14 percent disposed of the materials in a latrine”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingreasoning
57% of household members had a safely managed water service.
“These sub-indicators, when combined, show that 57 percent of household members had a safely managed water service”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The SDG safely managed drinking water value differed by type of water source.
“By type of water source, the SDG value differed”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Behaviour coding indicated that in 38 to 52 percent of cases for the three questions, interviewers needed to clarify the questions or probe to elicit responses.
“Behaviour coding, however, indicated that in 38 to 52 percent of cases for the three question, interviewers needed to clarify the questions or probe to elicit responses.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Respondents tended to correctly interpret "unable to access water in sufficient quantities when needed" (WS5C) as an interruption in the piping system or insufficient water pressure.
“Respondents tended to correctly interpret “unable to access water in sufficient quantities when needed” (WS5C) as an interruption in the piping system or insufficient water pressure, as shown in this discourse:”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The 17 cognitive interviews and two focus groups provided sufficient information to evaluate question quality.
- Findingown data
Words such as 'washing' in UN14 evoked from some women the idea of a bath tub.
“Words such as “washing” in UN14 evoked from some women, the idea of a bath tub.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
98% of household members used an improved source of drinking water.
“While virtually all household members used an improved source of drinking water or had drinking water located on their premises (98 and >99 percent respectively)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Drinking water consumed in the household was somewhat more likely to be contaminated than water collected at the source.
“The study found that drinking water consumed in the household was somewhat more likely to be contaminated than water collected at the source”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
Respondents renting accommodation did not know when the septic tank was last emptied as this is the responsibility of the landlord.
“Respondents renting accommodation also did not know when the septic tank was last emptied as this is the responsibility of the landlord.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingnone given
The subjective measure produces somewhat more difficulty for interviewers and respondents.
“Though the subjective measure produces somewhat more difficulty for interviewers and respondents”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
87% of household members had water available when needed.
“fewer had water available when needed (87 percent)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Contamination was much higher in 'other sources'.
“and much higher in ‘other sources’ (Table 4).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
64% of household members had water free from E. coli.
“only about two in three had water free from E. coli (64 percent, see Table 4)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
95% of women age 15-49 interviewed had a private place to wash.
“Virtually all women age 15–49 interviewed had a private place to wash (95 percent)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Little to no heaping of data on expected categories was observed in the distribution of data on timing of emptying.
“We observed little to no heaping of data on expected categories in the distribution of the data on timing of emptying.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
About 20% of pit latrines and septic tanks were emptied in the previous five years.
“and about 20 percent were emptied in the previous five years.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
53% of pit latrines and septic tanks had never been emptied.
“a majority of pit latrines and septic tanks had never been emptied (53 percent)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
For most women interviewed, 'washing' could only mean a bathroom.
“However, for most women interviewed, this could only mean a bathroom.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingnone given
Patterns of safely managed drinking water coverage by wealth were not clear.
“though patterns by wealth are not clear”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Most interviewers agreed that the place of disposal prompted considerable probing.
“most interviewers agreed that the place of disposal prompted considerable probing.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
23% of samples had over 10 E. coli per 100 mL at the point of collection.
“23 percent of samples were over 10 E. coli per 100 mL at the point of collection”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
47% of household members had detectable E. coli at the point of consumption.
“compared with almost half (47 percent) at the point of consumption.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Women during cognitive interviews showed few inhibitions discussing MHM with exclusively female interviewers.
“women, during cognitive interviews, showed few inhibitions discussing MHM with the exclusively female interviewers.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Few women refused to answer these questions (less than 2 percent).
“few women refused to answer these questions (less than 2 percent)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Behaviour coding showed that in about 20 percent of cases, additional interviewer probing and clarification was provided.
“Behaviour coding showed that in about 20 percent of cases, additional interviewer probing and clarification was provided”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
More than 99% of household members had drinking water located on their premises.
“While virtually all household members used an improved source of drinking water or had drinking water located on their premises (98 and >99 percent respectively)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Significant numbers of respondents were not aware of emptying practices.
“We found significant numbers of respondents were not aware of emptying practices”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
27% of samples had over 10 E. coli per 100 mL at the point of consumption.
“compared with 27 percent at the point of consumption.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Rural women were more likely to dispose of menstrual materials in a latrine or burn the materials than urban women.
“Rural women were more likely to dispose of menstrual materials in a latrine or burn the materials than urban women (see Table 6).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The first water availability formulation (WS5C) consistently had higher percentages of interviewer and respondent problems than the second formulation (WS5E).
“However, behaviour coding data showed that the first formulation (WS5C) consistently had higher percentages of interviewer and respondent problems (see Table 3), indicating more difficulty to implement WS5C.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Interviewer self-coding of behaviour accurately captures question-response problems.
- Findingown data
Contamination was higher in piped than packaged water.
“Contamination was higher in piped than packaged water”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Of the three questions, UN15 posed the greatest challenge to interviewers in terms of clarifications and probing.
“Of the three questions, UN15 (on access to materials for the period) posed the greatest challenge to the interviewers in terms of clarifications and probing.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
About one in four respondents did not know whether their facility had been emptied or could not provide an answer.
“About one in four respondents did not know whether their facility had been emptied or could not provide an answer.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
In households where respondents reported that the sanitation facility had been emptied, the vast majority had been emptied mechanically by a service provider.
“In households where respondents reported that the sanitation facility had been emptied, the vast majority had been emptied mechanically by a service provider (see Table 5).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Water was found to be available in almost all cases.
“In particular, water was found to be available in almost all cases”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationown data
In the context of Belize, the study confirmed the feasibility of collecting information on the availability and quality of drinking water, emptying of sanitation facilities and menstrual hygiene in a multi-purpose household survey.
“In the context of Belize, this study confirmed the feasibility of collecting information on the availability and quality of drinking water, emptying of sanitation facilities and menstrual hygiene in a multi-purpose household survey, indicating specific areas to improve question formulation and field protocols.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The 17 cognitive interviews and two focus groups provided sufficient information to evaluate question quality.
- Rests on an assumption: Belize's variation in respondents' background reflects variation in countries that implement MICS, making it suitable for field-testing MICS questions.
- Premisecitation
The management of onsite sanitation facilities is recognised as a major data gap globally.
“The management of onsite sanitation facilities is recognised as a major data gap globally [25].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [25] 2017
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Improved drinking water sources may still contain faecal contamination.
“For example, water from a piped source or borehole, which is classified as ‘improved’, may still contain faecal contamination [8]”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [8] R Bain, 2014, Fecal Contamination of Drinking-Water in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis, PLOS Med source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Use of improved sanitation facilities may not prevent sewage and faecal sludge from being discharged into the environment without treatment.
“while use of improved sanitation facilities may not prevent sewage and faecal sludge from being discharged into the environment without treatment [9].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [9] R Baum, 2013, Sanitation: A Global Estimate of Sewerage Connections without Treatment and the Resulting Impact on MDG Progress, Environ Sci Technol source
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationcitation
The proportion of population using sources meeting new SDG criteria for safely managed drinking water is likely to be substantially lower than estimates based on old MDG indicators.
“It also highlights that the proportion of population using sources which meet the new SDG criteria for ‘safely managed’ drinking water is likely to be substantially lower than estimates based on the old MDG indicators [30].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [30] RE Bain, 2012, Accounting for water quality in monitoring access to safe drinking-water as part of the Millennium Development Goals: lessons from five countries, Bull World Health Organ source
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationown data
Discussion of the MHM topic was acceptable in a household survey in Stann Creek, Belize.
“we show that discussion of this topic was acceptable in a household survey in Stann Creek, Belize.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
These MHM questions were acceptable as part of the household survey.
“In general, these questions were acceptable as part of the household survey”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationown data
This lack of knowledge poses challenges for monitoring emptying practices through household surveys.
“This lack of knowledge poses challenges for monitoring emptying practices through household surveys”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
This lack of knowledge may reflect systems that are not safely 'containing' human waste.
“and in itself may reflect systems that are not safely “containing” human waste.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationcitation
Water availability can be measured in MICS.
“Our results also showed that water availability can be measured in MICS, as is done in other household surveys [23].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [23] 2016
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationcitation
This contrasts sharply with other studies including in India and Kenya, where access to materials, disposal and privacy for washing was much less common.
“and this contrasts sharply with other studies including in India and Kenya, where access to materials, disposal and privacy for washing was much less common [38,39].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [38] AM van Eijk, 2016, Menstrual hygiene management among adolescent girls in India: a systematic review and meta-analysis, BMJ Open source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [39] KT Alexander, 2014, Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Conditions in Kenyan Rural Schools: Are Schools Meeting the Needs of Menstruating Girls?, Water source
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationown data
Indicators that go beyond access to infrastructure reveal inequalities in service levels.
“These results underscore the value of indicators which go beyond access to infrastructure and reveal inequalities in service levels.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
The non-response to the question on 'the last time emptied' (WS8A) is partly explained by qualitative findings.
“The non-response to the question on “the last time emptied” (WS8A) is partly explained by qualitative findings.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
Tracking progress requires data from both household surveys and regulatory authorities or service providers.
“tracking progress requires data from both household surveys and regulatory authorities or service providers [32].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [32] JMP. JMP Green Paper: Global monitoring of water, sanitation and hygiene post-2015 [Internet]. 2015. Available: <ext-link xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/JMP-Green-Paper-15-Oct-2015.pdf" xlink:type="simple">http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/JMP-Green-Paper-15-Oct-2015.pdf</ext-link>
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationnone given
These findings have been used to improve the protocols and guidelines of the MICS programme.
“Collectively, these findings have been used to improve the protocols and guidelines of the MICS programme”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 35
- May combine two claims. 18
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
Findingown dataTesting water inside households impedes the questioning process.
“Further, the interviewers noted that testing water inside the households impedes the questioning process, “because it breaks the momentum of the interview” (Focus group 2).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The 17 cognitive interviews and two focus groups provided sufficient information to evaluate question quality.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
Findingown dataData collectors concluded that testing the water in the household was feasible.
“Data collectors concluded that testing the water in the household was feasible but that finding a flat work space on which to conduct the test proved challenging in some households”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The 17 cognitive interviews and two focus groups provided sufficient information to evaluate question quality.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataSeveral respondents believed that since they did not receive the results, the water was of sufficiently high quality, while E. coli was later found in some samples.
“Several believed that since they did not receive the results, the water was of sufficiently high quality while in fact E. coli was later found in some samples.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The 17 cognitive interviews and two focus groups provided sufficient information to evaluate question quality.
- Rests on an assumption: The portable water testing kit and incubation procedure accurately detect E. coli in drinking water.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Findingnone givenRural households had lower coverage of safely managed drinking water services than urban households.
“Expected patterns of lower coverage of safely managed drinking water services among rural households are noted”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe safely managed water service coverage (57%) is in sharp contrast to the near universal level given by the MDG indicator (98%).
“in sharp contrast to the near universal level given by the MDG indicator (98 percent)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataIn the first formulation of the water availability question, close to 25 percent of cases needed further clarification or probing by the interviewer, while this occurred in 15 percent of cases in the second formulation.
“For example, in the first formulation of the question, close to 25 percent of cases needed further clarification or probing by the interviewer while this occurred in 15 percent of cases in the second formulation of question.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Interviewer self-coding of behaviour accurately captures question-response problems.
May combine two claims.
Findingnone givenIn Stann Creek, Belize, emptying of onsite sanitation facilities is not prevalent, and when done, it is performed mechanically by a service provider.
“In Stann Creek, Belize, emptying of these facilities is not prevalent, and when done, it is performed mechanically by a service provider.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingown data16% of women burned the menstrual materials.
“and 16 percent burned the materials.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataTesting water inside households interrupted the flow of the interview and increased the time in the household.
“Testing water inside households interrupted the flow of the interview and increased the time in the household.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingown dataAll women interviewed saw no problem with disposal of materials (UN16).
“All women interviewed saw no problem with disposal of materials (UN16).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingown dataIn about 5 percent of cases the interviewers modified the question.
“and in about 5 percent of cases the interviewers modified the question.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataMost women had access to improved sanitation and used disposable materials.
“and most women had access to improved sanitation and used disposable materials.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingnone givenSome terms in the MHM questions were difficult to understand for respondents.
“While some terms in the MHM questions were difficult to understand for respondents”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe UNICEF-supported Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS) is a key global data source and was established in the mid-1990s to support countries to collect representative data on the situation of children and women.
“The UNICEF-supported Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS) is a key global data source and was established in the mid-1990s to support countries to collect representative data on the situation of children and women [5].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [5] About—UNICEF MICS [Internet]. [cited 14 Dec 2016]. Available: <ext-link xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://mics.unicef.org/about" xlink:type="simple">http://mics.unicef.org/about</ext-link>
Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductown dataHouseholds were split into two samples based on even or odd numbers to allow experimental comparison of alternative question formulations.
“Households were numbered sequentially from 1 to 30 and split into two samples based on even or odd numbers. These two samples allowed us to compare alternative formulations of selected questions on an experimental basis.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
PremisecitationMenstrual hygiene management can be a challenge for women and girls, especially in low and middle-income settings, though there have been few large-scale studies of the impacts on health, education and gender equality.
“The current literature suggests that menstrual hygiene management (MHM) can be a challenge for women and girls, especially in low and middle-income settings though there have been few large-scale studies of the impacts on health, education and gender equality [16–19].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 4 sources checked- cites [16] M Sommer, 2013, Overcoming the Taboo: Advancing the Global Agenda for Menstrual Hygiene Management for Schoolgirls, Am J Public Health source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [17] MJ Grant, 2013, Menstruation and School Absenteeism: Evidence from Rural Malawi, Comp Educ Rev source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [18] M Sommer, 2016, A Time for Global Action: Addressing Girls’ Menstrual Hygiene Management Needs in Schools, PLoS Med source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [19] C Sumpter, 2013, A Systematic Review of the Health and Social Effects of Menstrual Hygiene Management, PLoS ONE source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationUsing quantitative and qualitative methods is a widely recommended practice in survey-development and questionnaire evaluation.
“Data were collected using quantitative and qualitative methods, which is a widely recommended practice in survey-development and questionnaire evaluation [20].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [20] S Presser, 2004, Methods for Testing and Evaluating Survey Questions, Public Opin Q source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown dataTwo teams of five female interviewers were trained by the MICS and WHO/UNICEF JMP teams.
“Two teams of five female interviewers, employed by SIB, were trained by the MICS and WHO/UNICEF JMP teams with support from UNICEF Belize and the national ministry of health and the ministry of human development and social transformation.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataCognitive interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim.
“All interviews followed a semi-structured questionnaire, were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductnone givenThe Statistical Institute of Belize provided ethical oversight, reviewed all data collection protocols and approved all study protocols.
“The Statistical Institute of Belize (SIB) as the national authority on household data collection provided ethical oversight, reviewed all data collection protocols and approved all study protocols.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationEscherichia coli is the recommended indicator of faecal contamination.
“Escherichia coli (E.coli) is the recommended indicator of faecal contamination which is a major concern for human health in all countries [10].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [10] World Health Organization. WHO Guidelines on Drinking Water Quality, 4th edition [Internet]. Geneva, Switzerland; 2011. Available: <ext-link xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/44584/1/9789241548151_eng.pdf" xlink:type="simple">http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/44584/1/9789241548151_eng.pdf</ext-link>
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationBehaviour coding codes referring to interviewer and respondent behaviours is standard practice.
“Codes referred to interviewer and respondent behaviours, which is standard practice [27].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [27] YP Ongena, 2006, Methods of Behavior Coding of Survey Interviews, J Off Stat
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataThe response rates were 91 percent for households, 67 percent for individual women and 87 percent for water quality testing.
“The response rates were 91 percent for households, 67 percent for individual women and 87 percent for water quality testing.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataThe household survey used a 2-stage probability design with 20 census enumeration areas randomly selected and 30 households per area selected using systematic sampling.
“A representative household survey of Stann Creek district, Belize was implemented using a 2-stage probability design. In the first stage, 20 census enumeration areas were randomly selected and in the second stage, 30 households in each area were selected using systematic sampling.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationIn the final assessment of the MDGs, 84 percent of data on WASH indicators came from household surveys.
“Indeed, in the final assessment of the MDGs, 84 percent of data on WASH indicators came from household surveys [4].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [4] 2015
Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
InterpretationreasoningSamples collected at the household could be tested immediately after completing the interview (no later than 30 minutes) on the truck bed of the vehicle used to transport enumerators to the field.
“It was therefore agreed that samples collected at the household could be tested immediately after completing the interview (no later than 30 minutes) on the truck bed of the vehicle used to transport enumerators to the field.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The 17 cognitive interviews and two focus groups provided sufficient information to evaluate question quality.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductnone givenParticipants provided verbal consent to begin the interview or declined to participate.
“Participants then provided verbal consent to begin the interview or declined to participate.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataSample weights were designed to take into account non-response and used in the analysis.
“Sample weights were designed to take into account non-response (as per usual MICS practice) and used in this analysis.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataThe qualitative analysis used a content analysis approach and examined qualitative text data using Nvivo 10, simultaneously reviewing frequencies of behaviour coding.
“Using a content analysis approach, we examined qualitative text data using Nvivo 10, simultaneously reviewing frequencies of the behaviour coding for information on question comprehension and response processes in addition to the qualitative interview text data.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
InterpretationreasoningThis lack of knowledge may be partly due to the fact that the person interviewed may not be responsible for construction and maintenance of sanitation facilities.
“this may be partly due to the fact that the person interviewed may not be responsible for construction and maintenance of sanitation facilities.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
Interpretationnone givenThe study tested different questionnaire approaches and protocols and indicated that some specific refinements to these are needed for the next round of MICS surveys.
“The study tested different questionnaire approaches and protocols and indicated that some specific refinements to these are needed for the next round of MICS surveys.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataPackaged water scored higher on safely managed drinking water than other sources, because of better water quality.
“with packaged water scoring higher than other sources, because of better water quality (see Table 4)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationA study of 12 cities suggests that in many settings faecal sludge is not being managed effectively.
“A study of 12 cities suggests that in many settings faecal sludge is not being managed effectively [34].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [34] A Peal, 2014, Fecal sludge management: a comparative analysis of 12 cities, J Water Sanit Hyg Dev source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
InterpretationreasoningThese findings are useful to inform measurement guidelines from the WHO/UNICEF JMP.
“These are also useful to inform measurement guidelines from the WHO/UNICEF JMP”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationFor services to be considered safely managed, excreta must be safely disposed of in situ or transported and treated offsite.
“In order for services to be considered safely managed excreta must be safely disposed of in situ or transported and treated offsite([25].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [25] 2017
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataWASH services in Stann Creek are better than many parts of the world, limiting the generalisability of the lessons learnt from this pilot.
“WASH services in Stann Creek are better than many parts of the world, limiting the generalisability of the lessons learnt from this pilot.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
InterpretationreasoningThese actions will ultimately contribute to increasing the availability of more harmonized and comparable data for monitoring the new elements of SDG targets 6.1 and 6.2 at the country and global levels.
“These actions will ultimately contribute to increasing the availability of more harmonized and comparable data for monitoring the new elements of SDG targets 6.1 and 6.2 at the country and global levels.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductreasoningThe study may not have reached saturation on every topic explored.
“With limited numbers, the study may not have reached saturation on every topic explored.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
Study design and conductnone givenPatterns across the various evaluation techniques provided coherent, logical and explainable patterns.
“Nevertheless, patterns across the various evaluation techniques provided coherent, logical and explainable patterns.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationreasoningThese findings can potentially be adapted and adopted by other household survey programmes such as the DHS and LSMS.
“and can potentially be adapted and adopted by other household survey programmes such as the DHS and LSMS.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationA recent UN Women discussion paper describes many of the challenges women and adolescent girls face.
“A recent UN Women discussion paper describes many of the challenges women and adolescent girls face–ranging from lack of privacy and knowledge to ingrained taboos and social restrictions [37].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [37] BURT Z, NELSON K, RAY I. TOWARDS GENDER EQUALITY THROUGH SANITATION ACCESS [Internet]. 2016 Mar. Report No.: 12. Available: <ext-link xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.unwomen.org/-/media/headquarters/attachments/sections/library/publications/2016/towards-gender-equality-through-sanitation.pdf?la=en&vs=5952" xlink:type="simple">http://www.unwomen.org/-/media/headquarters/attachments/sections/library/publications/2016/towards-gender-equality-through-sanitation.pdf?la=en&vs=5952</ext-link>
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Study design and conductnone givenThe survey data are representative of the Stann Creek district, Belize.
“The survey data are representative of the Stann Creek district, Belize.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationThe ability to manage menstruation safely and with dignity is fundamental for achieving gender equality.
“The ability to manage menstruation safely and with dignity is fundamental for achieving gender equality [36].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [36] Winkler I, Roaf V. Bringing the Dirty Bloody Linen Out of the Closet–Menstrual Hygiene as a Priority for Achieving Gender Equality [Internet]. Rochester, NY: Social Science Research Network; 2014 Aug. Report No.: ID 2575250. Available: <ext-link xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2575250" xlink:type="simple">https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2575250</ext-link>
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationFurther evidence on the utility of returning results on health-related findings is still needed.
“The Medical Research Council (UK) Wellcome Trust points out that further evidence on the utility of returning results on health-related findings is still needed [31].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [31] Medical Research Council, Wellcome Trust. Framework on the feedback of health-related findings in research [Internet]. 2014. Available: <ext-link xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://wellcome.ac.uk/sites/default/files/wtp056059.pdf" xlink:type="simple">https://wellcome.ac.uk/sites/default/files/wtp056059.pdf</ext-link>
Not checked in the free run.
The paper relies on this without support.
Interviewer self-coding of behaviour accurately captures question-response problems.
“Behaviour coding, though usually done by observers, was modified to self-coding by interviewers for pragmatic reasons.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The 17 cognitive interviews and two focus groups provided sufficient information to evaluate question quality.
“In total, we conducted 17 cognitive interviews with respondents during and immediately following question administration, while in the field.”
“At the end of data collection, we conducted two focus groups, one with each survey team, consisting of 5 interviewers and a supervisor each.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Belize's variation in respondents' background reflects variation in countries that implement MICS, making it suitable for field-testing MICS questions.
“Belize was selected for the field test as the country provides wide variation in respondents’ background such as education, level of rurality and wealth, which are desirable when testing questions across different domains and which reflects the variation which exists in the different countries that implement MICS.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The portable water testing kit and incubation procedure accurately detect E. coli in drinking water.
“Water was tested in the households using a portable testing kit based on the EZ-Fit system (Millipore), where 100 ml of water was filtered through a nitrocellulose membrane and then placed onto a selective enzymatic growth media for E. coli (Nissui Compact Dry EC).”
The paper relies on this without support.
This is one of the few studies to examine new protocols on WASH monitoring for the SDGs using household surveys.
“This is one of the few studies to examine new protocols on WASH monitoring for the SDGs using household surveys.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Respondents want to know the results of water quality tests.
“Respondents understandably want to know the results of water quality tests”
The paper relies on this without support.
Results are currently available 24 hours or later after the sample has been processed.
“results are currently available 24 hours or later after the sample has been processed”
The paper relies on this without support.
Field teams may have already left the area by the time results are available.
“at which time, field teams may have already left the area.”
The paper relies on this without support.
In many countries, providing drinking water is the responsibility of governments, which are better placed to identify and address sources of contamination than household surveys.
“We also consider that in many countries, providing drinking water is the responsibility of governments, which are better placed to identify and address sources of contamination than household surveys”
The paper relies on this without support.
Household surveys can provide only minimal information to households on safe handling and storage.
“which can provide only minimal information to households safe handling and storage.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Safely managed sanitation services represent an ambitious new benchmark for global monitoring.
“Safely managed sanitation services represent an ambitious new benchmark for global monitoring”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Categorizations of open defecation, unimproved, limited, basic and safely managed facilities as outlined by the Joint Monitoring Program focus on how waste is managed, but do not reflect other features of the environment that may be relevant to the needs of women and girls.
“Categorizations of open defecation, unimproved, limited, basic and safely managed facilities as outlined by the Joint Monitoring Program [20] focus on how waste is managed, but do not reflect other features of the environment that may be relevant to the needs of women and girls [21].”
From The relationship between household sanitation and women’s experience of menstrual hygiene: Findings from a cross-sectional survey in Kaduna State, Nigeria. (2018) · cites this paper as [21]
A small fraction (6%) of studies focused on the role of MHM, where women reported a lack of proper MHM products, such as clean pads, in addition to private areas and an absence of water provisioning for cleaning and sanitation needs.
“A small fraction (6%) of studies focused on the role of MHM, where women reported a lack of proper MHM products, such as clean pads, in addition to private areas and an absence of water provisioning for cleaning and sanitation needs (Khan et al., 2017;Budhathoki et al., 2018;Davis et al., 2018).”
From A Systematic Review of Water and Gender Interlinkages: Assessing the Intersection With Health (2020) · cites this paper as Khan et al., 2017
Sanitation facilities were commonly cited to not be safe, clean, and accessible.
“Sanitation facilities were commonly cited to not be safe, clean, and accessible (Kwiringira et al., 2014;Sato et al., 2016;Khan et al., 2017;Aluko et al., 2018;Angoua et al., 2018;Dendup et al., 2018;Desalegn et al., 2018;Njuguna, 2019;Winter et al., 2019).”
From A Systematic Review of Water and Gender Interlinkages: Assessing the Intersection With Health (2020) · cites this paper as Khan et al., 2017
The absence of safe, secure, and private latrines forces women and girls to avoid practicing sustainable sanitation, hygiene, and MHM due to fear of violence or stigmatization.
“The absence of such facilities forces women and girls to avoid practicing sustainable sanitation, hygiene, and MHM due to a fear of violence, or as a result of stigmatization (Kwiringira et al., 2014;Khan et al., 2017;Budhathoki et al., 2018;Davis et al., 2018;Winter et al., 2019).”
From A Systematic Review of Water and Gender Interlinkages: Assessing the Intersection With Health (2020) · cites this paper as Khan et al., 2017
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Narrative reverses the latrine and burning disposal percentages
MinorThe text says 14% disposed of menstrual materials in a latrine and 16% burned them. Table 6 instead reports 16.8% for latrine disposal and 14.5% for burning.
“while 14 percent disposed of the materials in a latrine and 16 percent burned the materials.”
“| In the latrine | 16.8 | 4.2 | 27.3 | | Burning | 14.5 | 4.1 | 23.2 |”
Water availability total is below both residence-group values
MinorTable 4 reports 87.3% overall availability, but 100.0% for urban residents and 99.8% for rural residents. An overall percentage cannot be lower than both groups that make up the total.
“| Total | 98.0 | 87.3 | 99.9 | 64.1 | 57.1 | 1133 |”
“| Urban | 100.0 | 100.0 | 83.4 | 85.9 | 71.6 | 438 | | Rural | 96.7 | 99.8 | 89.7 | 50.3 | 47.9 | 695 |”
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- Authors
- Khan, S. M., Bain, R. E. S., Lunze, K., Unalan, T., Beshanski-Pedersen, B., Slaymaker, T., Johnston, R., & Hancioglu, A.
- Affiliations
- United Nations Children's Fund (US)
- Boston University (US)
- World Health Organization (CH)
- Corresponding author
- Khan, Shane M.
- Venue
- PLOS ONE
- Publisher
- Public Library of Science (PLoS)
- Published
- 2017-12-07
- Volume
- 12
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- e0189089
- ISSN
- 1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC5720699
- OpenAlex
- W2774037700
- Semantic Scholar
- 066c2b755e8339af3dc27a65e272c0d6d2ce5f64
- Cited by
- 46
- References
- 22
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 9 · 2020: 12 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 4
- FWCI
- 4.32
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- World Health Organization
- UNICEF
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Child Nutrition and Water Access
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Survey Methodology and Nonresponse
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Water Resource Management and Quality
- Keywords
- Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys, drinking water quality, sanitation facilities, menstrual hygiene management, SDG 6.1, Escherichia coli, septic tanks, water availability, cognitive interviewing, Belize
- MeSH terms
- Belize, Conservation of Natural Resources, Escherichia coli, Female, Humans, Menstruation, Surveys and Questionnaires, Sanitation, Water Microbiology, Drinking Water
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-08.
Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-08.
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