A novel household water insecurity scale: Procedures and psychometric analysis among postpartum women in western Kenya.
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Abstract
Our ability to measure household-level food insecurity has revealed its critical role in a range of physical, psychosocial, and health outcomes. Currently, there is no analogous, standardized instrument for quantifying household-level water insecurity, which prevents us from understanding both its prevalence and consequences. Therefore, our objectives were to develop and validate a household water insecurity scale appropriate for use in our cohort in western Kenya. We used a range of qualitative techniques to develop a preliminary set of 29 household water insecurity questions and administered those questions at 15 and 18 months postpartum, concurrent with a suite of other survey modules. These data were complemented by data on quantity of water used and stored, and microbiological quality. Inter-item and item-total correlations were performed to reduce scale items to 20. Exploratory factor and parallel analyses were used to determine the latent factor structure; a unidimensional scale was hypothesized and tested using confirmatory factor and bifactor analyses, along with multiple statistical fit indices. Reliability was assessed using Cronbach's alpha and the coefficient of stability, which produced a coefficient alpha of 0.97 at 15 and 18 months postpartum and a coefficient of stability of 0.62. Predictive, convergent and discriminant validity of the final household water insecurity scale were supported based on relationships with food insecurity, perceived stress, per capita household water use, and time and money spent acquiring water. The resultant scale is a valid and reliable instrument. It can be used in this setting to test a range of hypotheses about the role of household water insecurity in numerous physical and psychosocial health outcomes, to identify the households most vulnerable to water insecurity, and to evaluate the effects of water-related interventions. To extend its applicability, we encourage efforts to develop a cross-culturally valid scale using robust qualitative and quantitative techniques.
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When women lacked control over income and assets, they had limited decision-making power over improving or accessing water sources; constrained finances limited women's access to preferred water sources, desired water quantity, and water treatment methods.
“When women lacked control over income and assets, they had limited decision-making power over improving or accessing water sources [65,76,86,118,123,194,199,201,258,292].Constrained finances limited women's access to preferred water sources, [64,86,111,158,170,194,[197][198][199] desired water quantity, [86,192] and water treatment methods [86,111,118,204,293].”
From Water, sanitation, and women’s empowerment: A systematic review and qualitative metasynthesis (2022) · cites this paper as [292]
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Boateng, G. O., Neilands, T. B., Frongillo, E. A., Melgar-Quiñonez, H. R., & Young, S. L. (2018) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2018.00149 · Cited by 5,925 · see citing works
Self-citationYoung, S. L., Boateng, G. O., Jamaluddine, Z., Miller, J. D., Frongillo, E. A., Neilands, T. B., Collins, S. M., Wutich, A., Jepson, W. E., & Stoler, J. (2019) · BMJ Global Health · doi:10.1136/bmjgh-2019-001750 · Cited by 365 · see citing works
“19 It consisted of 32 items developed based on literature review(10) and fieldwork.(14) 15 18 The content and face validity of these items were assessed at each site.”
BackgroundSelf-citationWutich, A., Brewis, A., & Tsai, A. C. (2020) · Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Water · doi:10.1002/wat2.1461 · Cited by 193 · see citing works
“…2018) or symptoms of stress, distress or common mental disorders (Aihara, Shrestha, Kazama, & Nishida, 2015; Aihara, Shrestha, & Sharma, 2016; Boateng et al., 2018; Boateng et al., 2020; Brewis, Choudhary, & Wutich, 2019a, 2019b; Chindarkar, Chen, & Gurung, 2019; Cooper-Vince et al., 2017,…”
Brewis, A., Workman, C. L., Wutich, A., Jepson, W. E., & Young, S. L. (2019) · American Journal of Human Biology · doi:10.1002/ajhb.23309 · Cited by 181 · see citing works
Collins, S. M., Mbullo Owuor, P., Miller, J. D., Boateng, G. O., Wekesa, P., Onono, M., & Young, S. L. (2019) · Global Public Health · doi:10.1080/17441692.2018.1521861 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
“However, a validated scale to measure water insecurity in this population, which was being developed in tandem with the work presented here, is now complete (Boateng et al., 2018), thus permitting such comparisons in the future.”
BackgroundSelf-citationRosinger, A. Y., & Young, S. L. (2020) · Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Water · doi:10.1002/wat2.1468 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
“While limited research has quantified water insecurity alongside hydration status, two studies, one in Bolivia and a comparative one in Bolivia and Kenya, have done so recently.”
BackgroundInfluentialWater Security and Nutrition: Current Knowledge and Research Opportunities
Miller, J. D., Workman, C. L., Panchang, S. V., Sneegas, G., Adams, E. A., Young, S. L., & Thompson, A. L. (2021) · Advances in Nutrition · doi:10.1093/advances/nmab075 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
“6% of participants or members of their households had been unable to take medicines due to problems with water, although the types of problems and medicines were not specified (70).”
BackgroundYoung, S. L., Collins, S. M., Boateng, G. O., Neilands, T. B., Jamaluddine, Z., Miller, J. D., Brewis, A., Frongillo, E. A., Jepson, W. E., Melgar-Quiñonez, H. R., et al. (2019) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2018-023558 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
“This process built on the Delphi methodology used to develop the Kenya-specific scale.(10) Face validity Face validity, also part of item development, is assessed at each site (table 1, 1.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationA review of 80 assessment tools measuring water security
Octavianti, T., & Staddon, C. (2021) · Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Water · doi:10.1002/wat2.1516 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Water, sanitation, and women’s empowerment: A systematic review and qualitative metasynthesis
Caruso, B. A., Conrad, A., Patrick, M., Owens, A., Kviten, K., Zarella, O., Rogers, H., & Sinharoy, S. S. (2022) · PLOS Water · doi:10.1371/journal.pwat.0000026 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Wutich, A., Rosinger, A. Y., Stoler, J. B., Jepson, W. E., & Brewis, A. (2019) · American Journal of Human Biology · doi:10.1002/ajhb.23350 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Miller, J. D., Frongillo, E. A., Weke, E., Burger, R. L., Wekesa, P., Sheira, L. A., Mocello, A. R., Bukusi, E. A., Otieno, P. A., Cohen, C. R., et al. (2021) · Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1093/jn/nxab030 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
“We used a water insecurity scale validated for the study setting (24) that was slightly modified by the exclusion of 3 items because the scale had not yet been finalized when data collection began.”
MethodWater insecurity: An agenda for research and call to action for human biology
Wutich, A. (2020) · American Journal of Human Biology · doi:10.1002/ajhb.23345 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
“An important advance has been the development of culturally grounded water insecurity scales tailored to local conditions in Ethiopia (Hadley & Freeman, 2016; Stevenson et al., 2012), Nepal (Aihara, Shrestha, Kazama, & Nishida, 2015), Palestine's West Bank (Galaitsi, Huber-Lee, Vogel, & Naumova, 2015), Uganda (Tsai et…”
BackgroundInfluentialBoateng, G. O., Workman, C. L., Miller, J. D., Onono, M., Neilands, T. B., & Young, S. L. (2022) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113043 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Self-citationYoung, S. L., Bethancourt, H. J., Ritter, Z., & Frongillo, E. A. (2021) · BMJ Global Health · doi:10.1136/bmjgh-2021-006460 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Zero‐sum beliefs shape advantaged allies’ support for collective action
Stefaniak, A., Mallett, R. K., & Wohl, M. (2020) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2674 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Young, S. L. (2021) · Food Policy · doi:10.1016/j.foodpol.2021.102138 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Boateng, G. O., Balogun, M. R., Dada, F. O., & Armah, F. A. (2020) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113068 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Self-citationCross-sectional study to measure household water insecurity and its health outcomes in urban Mexico
Jepson, W. E., Stoler, J. B., Baek, J., Morán‐Martínez, J., Uribe-Salas, F. J., & Carrillo, G. (2021) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2020-040825 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Is household water insecurity a link between water governance and well-being? A multi-site analysis
Miller, J. D., Vonk, J., Staddon, C., & Young, S. L. (2020) · Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for Development · doi:10.2166/washdev.2020.165 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Harrington, E. K., Casmir, E., Kithao, P., Kinuthia, J., John-Stewart, G. C., Drake, A. L., Unger, J. A., & Ngure, K. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0255954 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Paul, A., Sikdar, D., Mahanta, J., Ghosh, S. K., Jabed, M. A., Paul, S., Yeasmin, F., Sikdar, S., Chowdhury, B., & Nath, T. K. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0256493 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Household-Reported Availability of Drinking Water in Africa: A Systematic Review
Thomas, M., Channon, A. A., Bain, R., Mutono, N., & Wright, J. (2020) · Water · doi:10.3390/w12092603 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Water Needs, Water Insecurity, and Human Biology
Rosinger, A. Y. (2023) · Annual Review of Anthropology · doi:10.1146/annurev-anthro-052721-090331 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Caruso, B. A., Portela, G., McManus, S., & Clasen, T. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17103468 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Nounkeu, C. D., & Dharod, J. M. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17134848 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“Further, recent literature on water insecurity scale development indicates that water insecurity increases the risk for food insecurity [12,13].”
BackgroundLinking water (in)security and wellbeing in low-and middle-income countries
Kangmennaang, J., & Elliott, S. J. (2021) · Water Security · doi:10.1016/j.wasec.2021.100089 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Nounkeu, C. D., Kamgno, J., & Dharod, J. M. (2019) · Journal of Public Health in Africa · doi:10.4081/jphia.2019.951 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Nagata, J. M., Miller, J. D., Cohen, C. R., Frongillo, E. A., Weke, E., Burger, R. L., Wekesa, P., Sheira, L. A., Mocello, A. R., Otieno, P. A., et al. (2021) · AIDS and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10461-021-03410-w · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Climate and hydrological seasonal effects on household water insecurity: A systematic review
Broyles, L. M. T., Pakhtigian, E. L., Rosinger, A. Y., & Mejía, A. (2022) · Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Water · doi:10.1002/wat2.1593 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“…2020) and the Household Water Insecurity Access Scale (Mushavi et al., 2020; Tsai et al., 2016), as well as scales developed for specific locations (see Boateng et al., 2018; Browning-Aiken et al., 2007; Danielaini et al., 2019; Hadley & Wutich, 2009; Hailu et al., 2020; Stevenson et al., 2012).”
BackgroundCharacterising monitoring processes in event-based prospective memory: Evidence from pupillometry
Moyes, J., Sari-Sarraf, N., & Gilbert, S. J. (2018) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2018.12.007 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Koyratty, N., Jones, A. D., Schuster, R. C., Kordas, K., Li, C., Mbuya, M. N. N., Boateng, G. O., Ntozini, R., Chasekwa, B., Humphrey, J. H., et al. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18116020 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“Population- and context-specific WI scales have also been developed in Kenya [21,22], rural Ethiopia [23,24], urban Nepal (Household Water Insecurity Scale (HWIS)) [25], slums of India (Water Insecurity Experience Scale (WIES)) [26], Uganda (Household Water Insecurity Access Scale (HWIAS) [27], Bolivia [28], Brazil [2…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSelf-citationTuthill, E. L., Maltby, A. E., Conteh, J., Sheira, L. A., Miller, J. D., Onono, M. A., Weiser, S. D., & Young, S. L. (2020) · AIDS and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10461-020-03047-1 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Development of water insecurity scale for rural households in Cameroon- Central Africa
Nounkeu, C. D., Gruber, K. J., Kamgno, J., Ngnie‐Teta, I., & Dharod, J. M. (2021) · Global Health Action · doi:10.1080/16549716.2021.1927328 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“Thus, drawing upon extensive and well-established argument on the importance of measuring food insecurity at the household-level [18,19], we undertook the development of a validated household-level experiential water insecurity scale using its pre-determined definition.”
MethodNounkeu, C. D., & Dharod, J. M. (2019) · Advances in Nutrition · doi:10.1093/advances/nmz008 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“(18) compared the ability to purchase water with water insecurity.”
BackgroundMethodInfluential“As Long As We Have the Mine, We'll Have Water”: Exploring Water Insecurity in Appalachia
Wies, J. R., Mays, A., Collins, S. M., & Young, S. L. (2020) · Annals of Anthropological Practice · doi:10.1111/napa.12134 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Workman, C. L., Stoler, J. B., Harris, A. R., Ercümen, A., Kearns, J. P., & Mapunda, K. M. (2021) · Global Public Health · doi:10.1080/17441692.2021.1971735 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Social science research concerned with food and water security has similarly demonstrated substantial co-occurrence that independently and together result in significant psychosocial and biological outcomes (Boateng et al., 2018; Brewis et al., 2020a; Brewis et al., 2020b; Collins et al., 2018; Jepson, 2014; Krumdieck…”
BackgroundOsinuga, A., Janssen, B., Fethke, N. B., Story, W. T., Imaledo, J. A., & Baker, K. K. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph182111043 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Physical work included experience of water insecurity [56]; water sourcing and proximity to water source from the Joint Monitoring Program (JMP) core questions [57]; load carrying [58]; and posture and movements [29,59,60].”
BackgroundJanssens, J. J., Goedemé, T., & Ponnet, K. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0256438 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Dimensions of water insecurity in pastoralist households in Kenya
Balfour, N., Obando, J. A., & Gohil, D. (2020) · Waterlines · doi:10.3362/1756-3488.19-00016 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Jayaweera, R., Goin, D. E., Twine, R., Neilands, T. B., Wagner, R. G., Lippman, S. A., Kahn, K., Pettifor, A. E., & Ahern, J. (2022) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2022-061032 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Workman, C. L. (2019) · Global Public Health · doi:10.1080/17441692.2019.1566483 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“Water insecurity can exacerbate food insecurity (Boateng et al., 2018; Boateng et al., n.d.; Workman & Ureksoy, 2017) and food insecure individuals are biologically and socially vulnerable to HIV (Weiser et al.”
BackgroundInfrastructure for water security: coping with risks in rural Kenya
Hamlet, L. C., Kamui, M. M., & Kaminsky, J. (2020) · Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for Development · doi:10.2166/washdev.2020.038 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
The skin microbiome of Xenopus laevis and the effects of husbandry conditions
Piccinni, M. Z., Watts, J. E. M., Fourny, M., Guille, M., & Robson, S. C. (2021) · Animal Microbiome · doi:10.1186/s42523-021-00080-w · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Broyles, L. M. T., Huanca, T., Conde, E., & Rosinger, A. Y. (2024) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.176705 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Ross, I. (2022) · Water Research · doi:10.1016/j.watres.2022.119327 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Wander: A breath-control Audio Game to Support Sound Sleep
Cai, J., Chen, B., Wang, C., & Jia, J. (2021) · Annual Symposium on Computer-Human Interaction in Play · doi:10.1145/3450337.3483461 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Horváth, L. A. (2023) · Research in Learning Technology · doi:10.25304/rlt.v31.2978 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Seasonal variation in household water insecurity in rural Bangladesh: A longitudinal analysis
Broyles, L. M. T., Pakhtigian, E. L., Aziz, S., Akanda, A. S., & Mejía, A. (2023) · PLOS Water · doi:10.1371/journal.pwat.0000157 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Roba, K. T., Jacobson, H., McGrosky, A., Sadhir, S., Ford, L. B., Pfaff, M., Pack, L. K., Nzunza, R., Douglass, M., Braun, D. R., et al. (2025) · American Journal of Human Biology · doi:10.1002/ajhb.70009 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Caruso, B. A., Mink, T. L., Patrick, M., Ogutu, E. A., Dawkins, C., Bendit, O., Fatima, M., Lustig, I., Macler, A., White, J., et al. (2025) · PLOS Global Public Health · doi:10.1371/journal.pgph.0004355 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“This method has been used to examine women’s water fetching experiences and environmental risks in an informal settlement in urban Malawi [15] and to explore experiences of water use, access, and insecurity in Western Kenya [60].”
Participatory mapping of water collection by Sexaxa community in Okavango, Botswana
Badimo, D., Mogomotsi, P. K., & Mogomotsi, G. E. J. (2020) · Physics and Chemistry of the Earth Parts A/B/C · doi:10.1016/j.pce.2020.102963 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Kirsch, K., Nagel, C., Iribagiza, C., Ecklu, J., Zawadi, G. A., Ntabaza, P. M., Barstow, C. K., Lund, A. J., Harper, J., Carlton, E. J., et al. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0283019 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Caruso, B. A., Mink, T. L., Patrick, M., Ogutu, E. A., Dawkins, C., Bendit, O., Fatima, M., Lustig, I., Macler, A., White, J., et al. (2025) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2025.02.12.25322162 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Melchor, P. J. M., & Parcutilo, J. O. (2025) · American Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.12691/education-13-4-1 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Pawellek, S., Wendeborn, T., & Wulff, H. (2026) · Frontiers in Sports and Active Living · doi:10.3389/fspor.2026.1717642 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Following cognitive interview guidelines, a sample of five to 15 DOET therapists was defined to balance feasibility and comprehension coverage (27).”
How to Evaluate Serendipity in Recommender Systems: the Need for a Serendiptionnaire
Binst, B. (2024) · ACM Conference on Recommender Systems (RecSys) · doi:10.1145/3640457.3688017 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“In addition to the Delphi method, we will conduct interviews with users, following a similar approach as in Boateng and colleagues [7].”
Cantó‐Sancho, N. (2023) · Arquivos Brasileiros de Oftalmologia · doi:10.5935/0004-2749.2022-0256 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“…index (GFI), values of >0.95 are indicators of a good model fit; (4) root mean square of residuals (RMSR), using Kelley’s criterion, estimates the reference value to consider an acceptable fit (20) ; and (5) weighted root mean square residual (WRMR), values of <1.0 represent a good fit (21,22) .”
MethodInfluentialMiller, J. D., & Young, S. L. (2021) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-821848-8.00015-9 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Ross, I. (2022) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4074856
Goodman, M. L., Theron, L. C., McPherson, H. M. H., Seidel, S. E., Raimer-Goodman, L. A., Munene, K., & Gatwiri, C. (2024) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2024.106897
Karthick, A. V., Rupashree, R., Juliet, P. A., Santhakumari, R., Mehala, D., & Anitha, K. (2026) · Studies in systems, decision and control · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-02056-7_42
Gender Perspective on Traditional Knowledge in Irrigation Management and Climate Change Adaptation
Yin, L. (2026) · Sustainable development goals series · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-12015-1_8
Okore, L. A., Aggarwal, R., Awuor, D. R., & Owuor, P. M. (2026) · Frontiers in Oral Health · doi:10.3389/froh.2026.1775671
“While research on household water insecurity has emphasized issues related to water availability, accessibility, and use (1, 11, 12), in low-resource settings, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, the focus has been on physical access and affordability (13, 14).”
Exploring household water insecurity in rural Tunisia: A pilot study toward scale development
Kammarti, O., Montginoul, M., & Habaieb, H. (2026) · JOURNAL OF OASIS AGRICULTURE AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT · doi:10.56027/joasd.022026
“Discriminant construct validity can also be tested using differentiation between ‘known groups’ to examine whether the measured concept behaves as expected in relation to groups known to have different water situations (Boateng et al., 2018b; Young et al., 2019a).”
InfluentialGyan, S. E., Owuor, P. M., Naidoo, K., & Boateng, G. O. (2026) · AIDS and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10461-026-05152-z
Self-citationBiocultural Approaches to Food and Water Insecurity and Infant and Young Child Feeding
Butler, M. S., Collins, S. M., & Young, S. L. (2026) · Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Anthropology · doi:10.1093/9780197849880.003.0666
- Authors
- Boateng, G. O., Collins, S. M., Mbullo, P., Wekesa, P., Onono, M., Neilands, T. B., & Young, S. L.
- Affiliations
- Northwestern University (US)
- Kenya Medical Research Institute (KE)
- University of California, San Francisco (US)
- Corresponding author
- Young, Sera L.
- ORCID
- Venue
- PLoS ONE
- Publisher
- Public Library of Science (PLoS)
- Published
- 2018-06-08
- Volume
- 13
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- e0198591
- ISSN
- 1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC5993289
- OpenAlex
- W2950779150
- Cited by
- 68
- References
- 101
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 19 · 2020: 14 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 3
- FWCI
- 16.80
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) (acceptedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (R21-MH108444, K01MH098902)
- Competitive Research Grants to Develop Innovative Methods and Metrics for Agriculture and Nutrition (IMMANA)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › General Health Professions › Food Security and Health in Diverse Populations
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Child Nutrition and Water Access
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Water Resource Management and Quality
- Keywords
- household water insecurity, scale development, psychometric validation, postpartum women, food insecurity, perceived stress, household water use, microbiological water quality, Western Kenya
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Female, Humans, Kenya, Psychometrics, Water Supply, Reproducibility of Results, Cohort Studies, Postpartum Period, Young Adult, Drinking Water
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