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The impact of COVID-19 pandemic on physical and mental health of Asians: A study of seven middle-income countries in Asia
Open accessAbstract
The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic has impacted the economy, livelihood, and physical and mental well-being of people worldwide. This study aimed to compare the mental health status during the pandemic in the general population of seven middle income countries (MICs) in Asia (China, Iran, Malaysia, Pakistan, Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam). All the countries used the Impact of Event Scale–Revised (IES-R) and Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS-21) to measure mental health. There were 4479 Asians completed the questionnaire with demographic characteristics, physical symptoms and health service utilization, contact history, knowledge and concern, precautionary measure, and rated their mental health with the IES-R and DASS-21. Descriptive statistics, One-Way analysis of variance (ANOVA), and linear regression were used to identify protective and risk factors associated with mental health parameters. There were significant differences in IES-R and DASS-21 scores between 7 MICs (p<0.05). Thailand had all the highest scores of IES-R, DASS-21 stress, anxiety, and depression scores whereas Vietnam had all the lowest scores. The risk factors for adverse mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic include age <30 years, high education background, single and separated status, discrimination by other countries and contact with people with COVID-19 (p<0.05). The protective factors for mental health include male gender, staying with children or more than 6 people in the same household, employment, confidence in doctors, high perceived likelihood of survival, and spending less time on health information (p<0.05). This comparative study among 7 MICs enhanced the understanding of metal health in the general population during the COVID-19 pandemic.
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“The baseline levels of stress and anxiety among our participants were significantly higher than those found in the same population of university students by previous research [42-44], as well as in the general population [45].”
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Cites
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MethodEpidemiology of depression among displaced people: A systematic review and meta-analysis
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Rocha, I. C. N., Costa, A. C. D. S., Islam, Z., Jain, S., Goyal, S., Mohanan, P., Essar, M. Y., & Ahmad, S. (2021) · Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness · doi:10.1017/dmp.2021.140 · Cited by 53
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Trancón, N. C., Zuazua, M., Segovia, A. O., Cifré, E., & Izquierdo, A. L. G. (2024) · Frontiers in Organizational Psychology · doi:10.3389/forgp.2024.1360373 · Cited by 35
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Lusida, M. A. P., Salamah, S., Jonatan, M., Wiyogo, I. O., Asyari, C. H., Ali, N. D., Asmara, J., Wahyuningtyas, R. I., Triyono, E. A., Ratnadewi, N. K., et al. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0270966 · Cited by 25
Hagrass, A. I., Almadhoon, H. W., Al‐kafarna, M., Almaghary, B. K., Nourelden, A. Z., Fathallah, A. H., Hasan, M. T., Mohammed, Y. A., Al-Nabahin, A. O., Wafi, D. S., et al. (2022) · BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth · doi:10.1186/s12884-022-04884-9 · Cited by 23
“Introduction SARS-CoV-2 pandemic had negative consequences and presented unprecedented obstacles that harmed people’s physical and mental health around the world [1].”
BackgroundMental Health Condition among University Students of Bangladesh during the Critical COVID-19 Period
Rahman, M. M., Asikunnaby, Khan, S. J., Arony, A., Mamun, Z. A., Procheta, N. F., Sakib, M. S., Aryal, K., Rahman, F., & Islam, A. R. M. T. (2022) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm11154617 · Cited by 24
“Study found that the students were associated with higher psychological impact during the COVID-19 pandemic [36].”
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Consequences of COVID-19 on Health, Economy, and Tourism in Asia: A Systematic Review
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The COVID-19 pandemic and insecurity: the furiousness in Nigerian communities
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International survey for assessing COVID-19’s impact on fear and health: study protocol
Lok, K. Y. W., Fong, D., Wong, J. Y. H., Ho, M. M., Choi, E. P. H., Pandian, V., Davidson, P. M., Duan, W., Tarrant, M., Lee, J. J., et al. (2021) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2021-048720 · Cited by 20
Betini, G. S., Hirdes, J. P., Adekpedjou, R., Perlman, C. M., Huculak, N., & Hébert, P. C. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.666261 · Cited by 23
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Kandula, U. R., & Wake, A. D. (2022) · Psychology Research and Behavior Management · doi:10.2147/prbm.s341299 · Cited by 24
“Thailand received the highest IES-R and DASS-21 stress, anxiety, and depression levels while Vietnam received the lowest.(22)”
BackgroundTay, W. W. Y., Jesuthasan, J., Wan, K. S., Ong, T., & Mustapha, F. I. (2022) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2022.863323 · Cited by 22
Chudzicka-Czupała, A., Chiang, S.-K., Grabowski, D., Żywiołek-Szeja, M., Quek, M., Pudełek, B., Teopiz, K., Ho, R. C. M., & McIntyre, R. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph192215405 · Cited by 19
“Total DASS-21 score was used for analysis based on previous studies [27,28].”
MethodSelf-citationPasha, H., Omidvar, S., Faramarzi, M., & Bakhtiari, A. (2023) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-023-04677-0 · Cited by 18
“The results emphasized that the history of chronic diseases exacerbated the prevalence of depression and anxiety [38].”
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“Furthermore, the pandemic and lifestyle changes, such as reduced stress levels due to remote work or reduced commuting time, can positively impact hypertension control and treatment outcomes 31 .”
BackgroundDigital Financial Inclusion in Emerging Economies: Evidence from Jordan
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“For instance, the business environment in Jordan has experienced an increased demand for digital financial services, online products, and operations in the banking sector (Wang et al. 2021).”
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Wayessa, Z. J., Melesse, G. T., Amaje, E., & Wako, W. G. (2021) · SAGE Open Medicine · doi:10.1177/20503121211032810 · Cited by 21
Mental Health and the COVID-19 Pandemic: Observational Evidence from Malaysia
Tan, E. S. S., Chin, S. A. F. X., Sathapan, M. S. P., Dewi, A. D., Amini, F., Bustami, N. A., Tan, P. Y., Ho, Y. B., & Tan, C. K. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20054046 · Cited by 19
“This is consistent with the previous findings reported in Asian countries [68,75–77].”
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Li, J., Fong, D., Lok, K. Y. W., Wong, J. Y. H., Ho, M. M., Choi, E. P. H., Pandian, V., Davidson, P. M., Duan, W., Tarrant, M., et al. (2023) · Journal of Global Health · doi:10.7189/jogh.13.06031 · Cited by 17
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Ho, R., Tran, B. X., & McIntyre, R. S. (2021) · Annals of the Academy of Medicine Singapore · doi:10.47102/annals-acadmedsg.202189 · Cited by 17
Self-citationMcCormack, G. R., Doyle–Baker, P. K., Petersen, J. A., & Ghoneim, D. (2021) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2021-050550 · Cited by 19
Iqbal, M., Ma, J., Ullah, Z., Ahmad, N., bin Ibrahim, M., Waqas, M., & Ahmad, M. (2022) · Social Work in Public Health · doi:10.1080/19371918.2022.2066042 · Cited by 17
Liu, H., Ye, B., & Hu, Y. S. (2022) · Psychology Research and Behavior Management · doi:10.2147/prbm.s360455 · Cited by 21
“A survey of seven countries in Asia shows that COVID-19 hits people under the age of 30 most, causing them to significantly increase anxiety and depression.(9) A study found a high rate of anxiety or depressive symptoms due to COVID-19 in the population, ranging from 15% to 16%.”
Cimino, S., Vito, P. D., & Cerniglia, L. (2022) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-022-03360-z · Cited by 17
“The COVID-19 pandemic and the related measures put in place to stem its spread have had a drastic impact on mental health in the general population (Ceban et al., 2021; Lee et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2021c; Xiong et al., 2020).”
Li, R., Huang, C., Guan, B., Du, J., Zhao, M., & Liu, S. (2023) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2023.05.055 · Cited by 18
Return of the unexpected: Rural workforce recruitment and retention in the era of COVID‐19
Jones, M., Versace, V. L., Lyle, D. M., & Walsh, S. (2021) · Australian Journal of Rural Health · doi:10.1111/ajr.12817 · Cited by 17
Faraci, P., Bottaro, R., Valenti, G. D., & Craparo, G. (2022) · Psychology Research and Behavior Management · doi:10.2147/prbm.s354083 · Cited by 18
“Beyond the consequences on general health, the spread of the pandemic and the following restrictive measures had a great impact on the world economy and on all people’s daily life in all countries as well as on developing countries.(10) As a result, social distancing – in association with personal risk (e.”
BackgroundCogan, N. A., Archbold, H., Deakin, K., Griffith, B., Berruga, I. S., Smith, S. G., Tanner, G., & Flowers, P. (2022) · International Journal of Mental Health · doi:10.1080/00207411.2022.2056386 · Cited by 17
“2022 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC et al., 2021; Vindegaard & Benros, 2020; Wang et al., 2021; Willis & Chalder, 2021).”
COVID-19 mental health prevalence and its risk factors in South East Asia
Balakrishnan, V., Ng, K. S., Kaur, W., & Lee, Z. L. (2022) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-02556-z · Cited by 17
Metadata
- Authors
- Wang, C., Tee, M., Roy, A. E., Fardin, M. A., Srichokchatchawan, W., Habib, H. A., Tran, B. X., Hussain, S., Hoang, M. T., Le, X. T., Ma, W., Pham, H. Q., Shirazi, M., Taneepanichskul, N., Tan, Y., Tee, C., Xu, L., Xu, Z., Vu, G. T., Zhou, D., Koh, B. J., McIntyre, R. S., Ho, C., Ho, R. C., & Kuruchittham, V.
- Affiliations
- Huaibei Normal University (CN)
- University of the Philippines Manila (PH)
- Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (MY)
- Islamic Azad University, Zahedan Branch (IR)
- Chulalongkorn University (TH)
- University of Karachi (PK)
- Johns Hopkins University (US)
- Duy Tan University (VN)
- Hanoi Medical University (VN)
- University of Sistan and Baluchestan (IR)
- Trường ĐH Nguyễn Tất Thành (VN)
- National University of Singapore (SG)
- University Health Network (CA)
- National University Health System (SG)
- Southeast Asia One Health University Network (TH)
- Corresponding author
- Ho, Roger C.
- ORCID
- Venue
- PLOS ONE
- Publisher
- Public Library of Science (PLoS)
- Published
- 2021-02-11
- Volume
- 16
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- e0246824
- ISSN
- 1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7877638
- OpenAlex
- W3126849703
- Cited by
- 460
- References
- 44
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 25 · 2024: 53 · 2023: 111 · 2022: 171 · 2021: 86
- FWCI
- 71.79
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Research Explorer (The University of Manchester) (publishedVersion)
- Unimas Institutional Repository (Universiti Malaysia Sarawak) (acceptedVersion)
- National University of Singapore (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Rare & Special e-Zone (The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology) (submittedVersion)
- Greater South Information System
- Funders
- Huaibei Normal University, China.
- National University of Singapore iHealthtech Other Operating Expenses (R-722-000-004-731)
- Vingroup Innovation Foundation (VINIF) COVID in Vietnam (VINIF.2020.Covid19.DA07)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Maternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and Postpartum
- Keywords
- COVID-19 pandemic, mental health, physical health, anxiety, depression, stress, middle-income countries, Asia, risk factors, protective factors, cross-national comparison, health care utilization, somatic symptoms
- MeSH terms
- COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, Adolescent, Adult, Anxiety, Asia, Child, Cross-Sectional Studies, Depression, Female, Humans, Male, Mental Health, Middle Aged, Sex Factors, Socioeconomic Factors, Stress, Psychological, Young Adult, Protective Factors
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