Schema and emotion in memory retrieval following video-based learning: An artificial intelligence study

“It is implemented based on ResNet-34 architecture (He et al., 2016) to compute facial expressions with a feature vector of 128 values for each face image describing a person’s facial expression characteristics.”

“The TFD module is an optimised version of the YOLO (You Only Look Once) object-detection machine learning algorithm (Redmon & Farhadi, 2017), which utilises depth-wise separable convolution instead of regular convolutions.”

“The SSD module is based on the MobileNetV1 object-detection machine learning algorithm (Howard et al., 2017).”

“Darwin (1872) pioneered the first scientific study about emotions and historically dominated as the founder of the science of emotions (Leff, 1973).”

“Although the term schema has roots in Kant’s philosophical work, schema did not gain cognitive research attention until Bartlett (1932) used the term schema and conducted experiments to explore the effects of schema in memory construction.”

“The neural network utilises the Dlib library – a toolkit containing machine learning algorithms in the computer vision domain (King, 2009) and achieves a prediction accuracy of 99.38% (Mühler, 2019) based on the Labeled-Faces-in-the-Wild public dataset (G. Huang et al., 2008) that contained 13000+…”

“Schemas are believed to be the “building blocks of cognition” (Rumelhart, 2017, p. 33); hence schema theory has played a significant role in the history of learning, design and technology domain (i.e., educational technology).”

“In fact, both philosophers considered emotions as a disturbance to cognition (Dalgleish & Power, 2000).”

“Emotions drive attention (Vuilleumier, 2005), influencing learning motivation and facilitating active encoding in memory (Pekrun, 1992; Seli et al., 2016).”

“The SSD MobileNet model is pretrained using the WIDERFACE public dataset (Yang et al., 2016), consisting of 32,203+ images and 393,703+ labelled faces.”

“The cryptocurrency learning video did not exceed 9 minutes for maintaining proper participant engagement (Guo et al., 2014).”

“Moreover, memory can also be modulated by emotion (LaBar & Cabeza, 2006; Righi et al., 2012) and emotions have a substantial influence on the cognitive processes of humans, including learning and memory (Phelps, 2004; Um et al., 2012).”

“Moreover, memory can also be modulated by emotion (LaBar & Cabeza, 2006; Righi et al., 2012) and emotions have a substantial influence on the cognitive processes of humans, including learning and memory (Phelps, 2004; Um et al., 2012).”

“In other words, schema interprets how we see the external world with internal metal structures (i.e., experience) (Johnson, 1987).”

“By exploiting this advantage, recent trends show a surge in advocating flipped learning approaches (Gilboy et al., 2015).”

“In this perspective, basic does not mean that emotions are discrete or independent (Izard, 1971, 2013).”

“Izard, pioneering doing emotion research for more than 40 years, himself had proposed several lists of basic emotions, first starting from 10 emotions (Izard, 1991) and then modifying and proposing a revised list of six emotions (Izard, 2009).”

“Studies have found that differences in prior knowledge and training can impact learning outcomes (Anderson, 1981; Jonassen & Grabowski, 1993; Rumelhart, 2017; van Kesteren et al., 2012).”

“Izard, pioneering doing emotion research for more than 40 years, himself had proposed several lists of basic emotions, first starting from 10 emotions (Izard, 1991) and then modifying and proposing a revised list of six emotions (Izard, 2009).”

“A confused student has an increased and better focus on learning, leading to higher performance (D’Mello et al., 2014).”

“Emotions drive attention (Vuilleumier, 2005), influencing learning motivation and facilitating active encoding in memory (Pekrun, 1992; Seli et al., 2016).”

“Moreover, memory can also be modulated by emotion (LaBar & Cabeza, 2006; Righi et al., 2012) and emotions have a substantial influence on the cognitive processes of humans, including learning and memory (Phelps, 2004; Um et al., 2012).”

“Zoom conveniently conducts confidential live research interviews seamlessly among participants in a remote location (Gray et al., 2020).”

“Flipped learning Advancements in educational technology boosted learning capabilities for creating flexible learning environments at home instead of schools and universities (Betihavas et al., 2016).”

“JS platform (Tilkov & Vinoski, 2010).”

“Schema is defined as the abstract knowledge structures (Ghosh & Gilboa, 2014) that facilitate what we learn and remember.”

“Studies have found that differences in prior knowledge and training can impact learning outcomes (Anderson, 1981; Jonassen & Grabowski, 1993; Rumelhart, 2017; van Kesteren et al., 2012).”

“This online assessment tool provides a gamified experience (Chaiyo & Nokham, 2017; Göksün & Gürsoy, 2019) to keep participants engaged and motivated while responding to memory retention tests questions of the experiment.”

“This online assessment tool provides a gamified experience (Chaiyo & Nokham, 2017; Göksün & Gürsoy, 2019) to keep participants engaged and motivated while responding to memory retention tests questions of the experiment.”

“Therefore, the effects of emotional experiences are complicated and ubiquitous; positive emotions do not always benefit learning, and negative emotions do not always impede learning (Hascher, 2010; Pekrun, 2014).”

“Schema consistent information is embodied in long-term memory (Bartlett, 1932; Piaget, 1952) and processed in the brain against an individual’s existing prior knowledge.”

“) (Kristjánsson, 2016; Laura & Olivier, 2020), but Kant (1899) is generally considered as the first person to talk about schema.”

“The model has been pre-trained on a dataset of approximately 35000+ labelled face images (Wu et al., 2017).”

“Emotions drive attention (Vuilleumier, 2005), influencing learning motivation and facilitating active encoding in memory (Pekrun, 1992; Seli et al., 2016).”

“Since the 1970s, scholars have applied schema theory to external cognitive strategies (Winn, 2004) to help learners develop schemata when they encounter new information.”

“, students) mastery of skills and knowledge and testing nature is ubiquitous in educational research (Marsh et al., 2007).”

“• Schema incongruent or inconsistent is an event that conflicts with an individual’s expectations for an unexpected novel stimulus encountered from the surrounding environment (Greve et al., 2019).”

“Darwin (1872) pioneered the first scientific study about emotions and historically dominated as the founder of the science of emotions (Leff, 1973).”

“Studies have found that differences in prior knowledge and training can impact learning outcomes (Anderson, 1981; Jonassen & Grabowski, 1993; Rumelhart, 2017; van Kesteren et al., 2012).”

“JS core kernel (Smilkov et al., 2019) and runs on the Node.”

“During the recent COVID-19 pandemic, digital learning reached a whole new level as the default learning strategy (Sá & Serpa, 2020).”

“Technology-based instruction has evolved from early uses of simple audiovisual aids to complex forms of e-learning approaches (Halawi et al., 2009).”

“Additionally, these response time results in terms of recall point (immediate and delayed) perspective were consistent and support the findings of Galfano et al. (2012), in which the response times for both congruent and incongruent groups have shown no significant differences.”

“Moreover, memory can also be modulated by emotion (LaBar & Cabeza, 2006; Righi et al., 2012) and emotions have a substantial influence on the cognitive processes of humans, including learning and memory (Phelps, 2004; Um et al.”

“Advances in technology are driving instructors towards the use of education technology applications (Kolekar et al., 2018) and they are contributing to significant changes in students’ learning experience (Sloan & Lewis, 2014).”

“These digital learning tools support the concept known as educational technology, which is also termed as instructional design and technology (Lowenthal & Wilson, 2010).”

“Schema inconsistent information is embodied as discrete propositions in memory (Sentis & Burnstein, 1979) and undergoes distinctive processing for information retrieval, an elaborative form of processing where the brain notices a difference against existing knowledge (Prull, 2015).”

“In flipped learning pedagogical framework, traditional lectures and assignments are flipped (reversed or inverted) (Arnau et al., 2013).”

“Since watching a learning video is an integral part of the flipped learning framework, educational design research in recent times tends to focus more on video-based learning experiences (i.e., emotions) exhibited among students (Kolås, 2015).”

“This work was the most widely cited by schema theorists working on the cognitive domain (Saito, 1996).”

“Despite the benefits digital learning provided when deployed on a smaller scale in the past, the rapid adoption during the pandemic failed to improve teaching practices and even created a negative mindset among students towards video-based learning (Lin & Nguyen, 2021).”

“Educational videos are extensively used to deliver varied educational content (Moussiades et al., 2019).”

“A schema (plural: schemas or schemata) is an organised mental structure of knowledge stored in memory (Fleming, 1987; Gagne, 1986; Richey et al., 2010; Winn, 2004).”

“The IV recall point is classified as a stimulus variable which the researcher can manipulate (e.g., the time duration of immediate and delayed recall) (Mandler, 1959).”

“The exponential growth of technology usage in education resulted in a proliferation of pedagogical software learning tools known as digital learning tools (SooHwan et al., 2013).”

“Advances in technology are driving instructors towards the use of education technology applications (Kolekar et al., 2018) and they are contributing to significant changes in students’ learning experience (Sloan & Lewis, 2014).”

“Schema inconsistent information is embodied as discrete propositions in memory (Sentis & Burnstein, 1979) and undergoes distinctive processing for information retrieval, an elaborative form of processing where the brain notices a difference against existing knowledge (Prull, 2015).”

“The two most common ways to measure memory retention are recall test and recognition test (Davis & Moore, 1935).”

“However, it is challenging to assess improvements on intangible cognitive functions, such as learning and memory recall (Lu, 2014), and explicitly pinpoint how or when technology enhanced the learning experience (Bolton et al., 2008).”

“Moreover, Willey (2016) suggested learners who struggle in flipped learning possess behaviours such as not asking questions in sessions, being unable to apply learning concepts to problem context and heavily dependent on the traditional procedural learning style.”

“The standard emotional valence continuum distinguishes two extremes: • Positive emotions: These were historically ignored in research but gained an increased interest in recent years (Vikan, 2017).”

“Consequently, learners learn more through direct interactions with peers than passively watching an instructor during class (Borah, 2021).”

“Students in a video-based learning environment are naturally more reliant on watching learning videos than in a traditional face-to-face learning setting (Myllymäki et al., 2017).”

“However, it is challenging to assess improvements on intangible cognitive functions, such as learning and memory recall (Lu, 2014), and explicitly pinpoint how or when technology enhanced the learning experience (Bolton et al.”

“Learning is a natural ongoing process; the initial phase of learning is mastering and memorising basic facts (Riedesel & Charles, 2018).”

“AI systems that integrate schema and affect attention and memory retrieval might enable perceptual learning, indicated by [198].”

“The research conducted has the aim of being able to find out how effective internet ecampus media is at a tertiary institution (Li et al., 2021; Vidanaralage et al., 2022).”

“This research demonstrates the strength of speech recognition technology supporting speech intervention by offering immediate feedback and precise corrections [22][23].”