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The penicillin revolution and the role of the forgotten pioneer Vincenzo Tiberio (1869-1915): discovery, development and legacy.

Open access
Varotto, Elena, Galassi, Francesco Maria, Martini, Mariano, Gallitto, Ludovica, Ingaliso, Luigi·2025·Journal of Preventive Medicine and Hygiene
DOI 10.15167/2421-4248/jpmh2025.66.2.3647PMC PMC12606539
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Abstract

Penicillin’s discovery is widely attributed to Alexander Fleming (1881-1955) Professor of Bacteriology at St. Mary's Hospital in London in 1928, who observed the antibacterial effects of Penicillium mold. Fleming found that his "mold juice" was capable of killing a wide range of harmful bacteria, such as streptococcus, meningococcus and the diphtheria bacillus. He then set his assistants, Stuart Craddock and Frederick Ridley, the challenging mission of isolating pure penicillin from the mold juice. It shown to be very unstable, and they were only able to prepare solutions of crude material to work with. Fleming published his findings in the British Journal of Experimental Pathology in June 1929, with only a passing reference to penicillin's potential therapeutic benefits. However, over 30 years earlier, Italian physician Vincenzo Tiberio (1869-1915) had conducted controlled studies on the bactericidal effects of mold extracts, publishing results that went largely unnoticed by the scientific community. This article runs through a work plan timeline and significance of early antimicrobial discoveries, tracing the overlooked work of Tiberio, Fleming’s breakthrough, the biochemical properties of penicillin, and the wartime efforts that enabled its mass production. The story of penicillin is not only one of scientific innovation but also of missed recognition, collaboration, and the complex interplay of chance and preparedness.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This narrative historical review traces the pre-history and development of penicillin, arguing that Italian physician Vincenzo Tiberio (1869–1915) published controlled studies of mold-derived antibacterial substances in 1895, over thirty years before Alexander Fleming's 1928 observation. It follows the story from 19th-century microbial antagonism through Fleming's discovery, the Oxford team's purification work, wartime mass production, and the modern antimicrobial resistance crisis.

Key findings

  • Tiberio's 1895 paper *Sugli estratti di alcune muffe* reported that aqueous extracts of molds including *Mucor mucedo*, *Penicillium glaucum*, and *Aspergillus flavescens* inhibited pathogenic bacteria such as *Vibrio cholerae* and *Staphylococcus* strains in vitro and in animal tests; his work went largely unnoticed, and was rediscovered by Giuseppe Pezzi in 1946.
  • Fleming identified *Penicillium notatum* in 1928 and published in 1929, documenting activity against Gram-positive organisms including *Staphylococcus* and *Streptococcus* while leaving mammalian tissues unharmed, but could not purify the unstable compound.
  • The Oxford team led by Howard Florey and Ernst Chain, with Norman Heatley, conducted the first human trials in 1941, with patients near death from septicemia and abscesses recovering within hours; early supplies were so scarce the drug was recovered from patients' urine and reused.
  • Wartime scale-up: Mary Hunt's moldy cantaloupe yielded *Penicillium chrysogenum* strain NRRL 1951, and X-ray/UV mutagenesis produced mutants yielding more than 1,000 times the original mold; by mid-1944, in time for D-Day, penicillin was produced in quantities sufficient to treat thousands of Allied soldiers. Fleming, Florey, and Chain shared the 1945 Nobel Prize.
  • The paper cites projections that, if unchecked, antimicrobial resistance could cause 10 million deaths annually by 2050, eclipsing mortality from cancer and cardiovascular disease.

Methods

  • Narrative historical review; the authors describe a "work plan timeline" tracing early antimicrobial discoveries, Tiberio's work, Fleming's breakthrough, penicillin biochemistry, and wartime production.
  • No primary data, systematic search protocol, or quantitative synthesis is reported; the authors' contributions list a literature search and data curation but no formal review methodology.
  • Sources are cited historical and scientific literature, including Tiberio (1895), Fleming (1929), Pezzi (1946), and Bud's *Penicillin: Triumph and Tragedy* (2007).

Limitations

  • The paper states no limitations section; no explicit limitations are given in the text.
  • Evident from the text: this is a narrative historical review without a stated systematic search strategy, inclusion criteria, or critical appraisal of sources, so selection of the historical narrative is not transparently justified.
  • Evident from the text: several claims about Tiberio's methods and the reception of his work (e.g., that his paper "included careful controls" and was "dismissed as anecdotal") are asserted without cited primary documentation beyond the 1895 article and later commentaries.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

DataCite · 10.15167/2421-4248/jpmh2025.66.2.3647

Cites

2 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

6 of 46 cited sources checked · 2 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin in 1928 when he observed that a Penicillium mold inhibited bacterial growth.

    “Penicillin, the first widely effective antibiotic, was discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1928 when he observed that a Penicillium mold inhibited bacterial growth [1, 2].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [1] Gaynes R. The Discovery of Penicillin - New Insights After More Than 75 Years of Clinical Use. Emerg Infect Dis 2017; 23: 849- 53. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2305.161556. 10.3201/eid2305.161556 source
    • cites [2] Fleming A. On the antibacterial action of cultures of a Penicillium, with special reference to their use in the isolation of B. influenzae. Br J Exp Pathol 1929; 10: 226- 36. PMC2566493 11545337

      Not checked in the free run.

    • Rests on an assumption: Penicillin was the first widely effective antibiotic.
  • Premisecitation

    Resistance mechanisms spread rapidly via horizontal gene transfer.

    “These resistance mechanisms spread rapidly via horizontal gene transfer, turning once-treatable pathogens into stubborn clinical challenges.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [13] Bush K Bradford PA. β-Lactams and β-lactamase inhibitors: an overview. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2016; 6: a025247. https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.00047-19. 10.1128/CMR.00047-19 27329032 PMC4968164 source

      The β-Lactam Resistance: Concluding Remarks section (page unavailable) says that transferable β-lactamases travel on mobile elements among species and that high-level resistance can become a major clinical problem. It does not establish that these mechanisms spread rapidly, and it does not describe all the resistance mechanisms it lists as horizontally transferable. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Bacterial production of β-lactamases hydrolyzes the β-lactam ring of penicillin and renders it ineffective.

    “One of the earliest and most formidable forms of resistance was the bacterial production of β-lactamases, enzymes capable of hydrolyzing the β-lactam ring of penicillin and rendering it ineffective [13].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [13] Bush K Bradford PA. β-Lactams and β-lactamase inhibitors: an overview. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2016; 6: a025247. https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.00047-19. 10.1128/CMR.00047-19 27329032 PMC4968164 source
  • Premisecitation

    Widespread and indiscriminate antibiotic use created intense selective pressures that favored survival of resistant bacterial strains.

    “Widespread and often indiscriminate use—in clinical settings, agriculture, animal husbandry, and even household products—created intense selective pressures that favored the survival of resistant bacterial strains.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [13] Bush K Bradford PA. β-Lactams and β-lactamase inhibitors: an overview. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2016; 6: a025247. https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.00047-19. 10.1128/CMR.00047-19 27329032 PMC4968164 source

      The β-Lactam Resistance: Concluding Remarks section (page not provided) links increasing β-lactam resistance to widespread therapeutic dependence on those antibiotics. It does not address indiscriminate use, agriculture, animal husbandry, or household products, and it does not explicitly describe the selective-pressure mechanism attributed to it. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    The β-lactam ring of penicillin mimics the terminal D-Ala-D-Ala dipeptide of the peptidoglycan precursor, enabling covalent binding and permanent inactivation of PBPs.

    “The molecular secret of penicillin’s action lies in its β-lactam ring, a four-membered cyclic amide that mimics the terminal D-Ala-D-Ala dipeptide of the peptidoglycan precursor - a natural substrate for PBPs. This molecular mimicry enables penicillin to “trick” the enzyme into forming a covalent bond with the β-lactam ring, rendering the PBP permanently inactivated.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [10] Tipper DJ Strominger JL. Mechanism of action of penicillins: a proposal based on their structural similarity to acyl-D-alanyl-D-alanine. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1965; 54: 1133- 41. 5219821 PMC219812 source
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 8
  • May combine two claims. 25

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    If unchecked, AMR could cause 10 million deaths annually by 2050, eclipsing mortality from cancer and cardiovascular disease.

    “According to recent projections, if unchecked, AMR could cause 10 million deaths annually by 2050, eclipsing mortality from cancer and cardiovascular disease [14-16].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [14] Davies J Davies D. Origins and evolution of antibiotic resistance. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2010; 74: 417- 33. https://doi.org/10.1128/MMBR.00016-10. 10.1128/MMBR.00016-10 20805405 PMC2937522 source

      The Introduction describes antibiotic-resistant pathogens as a serious mortality threat, but gives no projection of 10 million annual deaths by 2050. Searches for that figure and for comparisons with cancer and cardiovascular mortality found no supporting passage in our copy; page numbers were not provided. (LLM, conf=0.76)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [15] Finland M. Emergence of antibiotic resistance in hospitals, 1935-1975. Rev Infect Dis 1979; 1: 4- 22. https://doi.org/10.1093/clinids/1.1.4. 10.1093/clinids/1.1.4 45521

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [16] Aminov RI. A brief history of the antibiotic era: lessons learned and challenges for the future. Front Microbiol 2010; 1: 134. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2010.00134. 10.3389/fmicb.2010.00134 21687759 PMC3109405 source

      The Antibiotic Resistance section reports annual deaths from resistant infections in the EU and hospital-acquired bacterial infections in the United States. Searches for the 10-million-by-2050 projection and the cancer and cardiovascular-disease comparison found no passage addressing either claim in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.75)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Fleming published his findings in the British Journal of Experimental Pathology in June 1929, with only a passing reference to penicillin's potential therapeutic benefits.

    “Fleming published his findings in the British Journal of Experimental Pathology in June 1929, with only a passing reference to penicillin’s potential therapeutic benefits.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [2] Fleming A. On the antibacterial action of cultures of a Penicillium, with special reference to their use in the isolation of B. influenzae. Br J Exp Pathol 1929; 10: 226- 36. PMC2566493 11545337

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Tiberio's work was rediscovered in the 20th century by Giuseppe Pezzi and others, earning him overdue recognition in the history of penicillin.

    “Largely ignored by Italy’s scientific community [5], his work was rediscovered in the 20th century by Giuseppe Pezzi and others [6, 7], earning him overdue recognition in the history of penicillin.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [6] Pezzi G. Un italiano precursore degli studi sulla medicina. Ann Med Nav Colon 1946; 51.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [7] Perciaccante A Coralli A Lippi D Appenzeller O Bianucci R. Vincenzo Tiberio (1869-1915) and the dawn of the antibiotic age. Intern Emerg Med 2019; 14: 1363- 4. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11739-019-02116-1. 10.1007/s11739-019-02116-1 31154612 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The Oxford team's preclinical studies demonstrated that penicillin was highly effective against a wide array of bacterial pathogens and remarkably well tolerated by host organisms.

    “The team’s preclinical studies demonstrated that penicillin was not only highly effective against a wide array of bacterial pathogens but also remarkably well tolerated by host organisms.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [9] Bud R. Penicillin: Triumph and tragedy. Oxford: Oxford University Press 2007.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Selective toxicity of penicillin-lethal to bacteria but safe for host cells-was an unprecedented pharmacological feature and later became the cornerstone of antibiotic therapy.

    “This selective toxicity - lethal to bacteria but safe for host cells - was an unprecedented pharmacological feature and would later become the cornerstone of antibiotic therapy.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    These collaborative efforts led to deep-tank fermentation and the eventual mass production of penicillin, which became widely available to Allied troops by 1944.

    “These collaborative efforts led to the development of deep-tank fermentation and the eventual mass production of penicillin, which became widely available to Allied troops by 1944 [9].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [9] Bud R. Penicillin: Triumph and tragedy. Oxford: Oxford University Press 2007.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Several natural antibiotics have been shown to evolve as part of microbial competition in the environment.

    “Moreover, several natural antibiotics have been shown to evolve as part of microbial competition in the environment [17].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [17] Clardy J Fischbach MA Currie CR. The natural history of antibiotics. Curr Biol 2009; 19: R437- 41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2009.04.001. 10.1016/j.cub.2009.04.001 19515346 PMC2731226 source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    The golden age of antibiotics spanned approximately from the mid-1940s to the early 1970s and witnessed rapid discovery and commercialization of multiple new classes of antibiotics.

    “This period, spanning approximately from the mid-1940s to the early 1970s, witnessed the rapid discovery and commercialization of multiple new classes of antibiotics, each addressing different bacterial targets and broadening the spectrum of treatable diseases.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Tiberio's mold extracts exhibited a marked inhibitory effect on bacterial growth, both in culture media and in in-vivo tests involving animal models.

    “His results were clear and replicable: the mold extracts exhibited a marked inhibitory effect on bacterial growth, both in culture media and, significantly, in in-vivo tests involving animal models [3].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [3] Tiberio V. Sugli estratti di alcune muffe. Ann Igiene Sper 1895; 5: 91- 103.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Fleming deduced that the mold was secreting a substance that killed or inhibited bacteria and named it penicillin.

    “He deduced that the mold was secreting a substance into its surroundings that killed or inhibited the growth of bacteria. Fleming named this substance “penicillin,” after the mold’s genus, and published his findings in 1929 in the British Journal of Experimental Pathology [2].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [2] Fleming A. On the antibacterial action of cultures of a Penicillium, with special reference to their use in the isolation of B. influenzae. Br J Exp Pathol 1929; 10: 226- 36. PMC2566493 11545337

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Tiberio's observations anticipated the discovery of penicillin by several decades and demonstrated a scientific approach remarkably consistent with the principles of evidence-based medicine.

    “His observations not only anticipated the discovery of penicillin by several decades but also demonstrated a scientific approach remarkably consistent with the principles of evidence-based medicine.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [7] Perciaccante A Coralli A Lippi D Appenzeller O Bianucci R. Vincenzo Tiberio (1869-1915) and the dawn of the antibiotic age. Intern Emerg Med 2019; 14: 1363- 4. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11739-019-02116-1. 10.1007/s11739-019-02116-1 31154612 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Streptomycin was the first aminoglycoside antibiotic and the first effective treatment for tuberculosis; tetracycline provided broad-spectrum activity; chloramphenicol was effective against typhoid fever and meningitis.

    “Among the most impactful were streptomycin, the first aminoglycoside antibiotic and the first effective treatment for tuberculosis [11]; tetracycline, which provided broad-spectrum activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative organisms; and chloramphenicol, a powerful agent effective against life-threatening infections such as typhoid fever and meningitis [12].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [11] Schatz A Bugle E Waksman SA. Streptomycin, a substance exhibiting antibiotic activity against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1944; 55: 66- 9. https://doi.org/10.3181/00379727-55-14461. 10.3181/00379727-55-14461 16056018 source
    • cites [12] Waxman DJ Strominger JL. Penicillin-binding proteins and the mechanism of action of beta-lactam antibiotics. Annu Rev Biochem 1983; 52: 825- 69. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.bi.52.070183.004141. 10.1146/annurev.bi.52.070183.004141 6351730 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Penicillin inhibits bacterial cell wall synthesis by irreversibly binding to penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs), halting peptidoglycan cross-linking and compromising cell wall integrity.

    “Penicillin, a β-lactam antibiotic, inhibits this critical enzymatic step by irreversibly binding to the active site of PBPs, thereby halting the cross-linking process and compromising the structural integrity of the cell wall [10].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [10] Tipper DJ Strominger JL. Mechanism of action of penicillins: a proposal based on their structural similarity to acyl-D-alanyl-D-alanine. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1965; 54: 1133- 41. 5219821 PMC219812 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The legacy of penicillin is twofold: it exemplifies the life-saving potential of biomedical innovation and the ongoing challenge of preserving that legacy in a rapidly evolving microbial world.

    “The legacy of penicillin is thus twofold: it exemplifies the life-saving potential of biomedical innovation and the ongoing challenge of preserving that legacy in a rapidly evolving microbial world.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: WHO, CDC, and other international agencies have declared antimicrobial resistance one of the top ten global public health threats.
    • Rests on an assumption: Pharmaceutical companies have largely abandoned antibiotic development due to low profitability and high regulatory hurdles.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Fleming's ability to develop penicillin as a therapeutic agent was severely limited because the compound was inherently unstable and difficult to isolate in pure and potent form.

    “Despite the significance of his discovery, Fleming’s ability to develop penicillin as a therapeutic agent was severely limited. The compound was inherently unstable and difficult to isolate in a pure and potent form.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [2] Fleming A. On the antibacterial action of cultures of a Penicillium, with special reference to their use in the isolation of B. influenzae. Br J Exp Pathol 1929; 10: 226- 36. PMC2566493 11545337

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    Tiberio's paper included careful controls, thoughtful discussion of alternative explanations, and proposals for future research.

    “Importantly, his paper included careful controls, thoughtful discussion of alternative explanations, and proposals for future research.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [3] Tiberio V. Sugli estratti di alcune muffe. Ann Igiene Sper 1895; 5: 91- 103.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In 1928, Fleming noticed a Petri dish inoculated with Staphylococcus aureus contaminated with a colony of blue-green mold, with a halo of inhibition surrounding the mold.

    “Upon returning from a holiday, Fleming noticed that one of his neglected Petri dishes, which had been inoculated with Staphylococcus aureus, had become contaminated with a colony of blue-green mold.”
    • Also stated in: § Alexander Fleming and the Serendipitous Discovery · plain
      “What caught his attention, however, was not the contamination itself, but the peculiar halo of inhibition surrounding the mold, in which no bacterial growth could be seen.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [2] Fleming A. On the antibacterial action of cultures of a Penicillium, with special reference to their use in the isolation of B. influenzae. Br J Exp Pathol 1929; 10: 226- 36. PMC2566493 11545337

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Penicillin targets PBPs and peptidoglycan, which are unique to prokaryotic organisms and absent in eukaryotic cells, enabling selective toxicity.

    “The targets of penicillin – PBPs and peptidoglycan – are unique to prokaryotic organisms and entirely absent in eukaryotic cells, including those of humans and animals. This means that penicillin can be used to kill or inhibit bacterial pathogens without harming host tissues, a pharmacological ideal known as selective toxicity [11].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [11] Schatz A Bugle E Waksman SA. Streptomycin, a substance exhibiting antibiotic activity against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1944; 55: 66- 9. https://doi.org/10.3181/00379727-55-14461. 10.3181/00379727-55-14461 16056018 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Florey and Chain transformed penicillin into a usable, life-saving drug, ushering in the modern antibiotic era.

    “While Fleming had discovered penicillin, it was Florey and Chain who transformed it into a usable, life-saving drug - an achievement that would usher in the modern antibiotic era and save countless lives.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The wartime success of penicillin production established a new model for pharmaceutical innovation, demonstrating public-private collaboration, government-sponsored research, and industrial scalability of biological products.

    “The wartime success of penicillin production not only changed the outcome for countless soldiers but also established a new model for pharmaceutical innovation. It demonstrated the potential of public-private collaboration, government-sponsored research initiatives, and the industrial scalability of biological products.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Tiberio's work was largely ignored by Italy's scientific community and went largely unnoticed by the scientific establishment of his day.

    “Largely ignored by Italy’s scientific community [5], his work was rediscovered in the 20th century by Giuseppe Pezzi and others [6, 7], earning him overdue recognition in the history of penicillin.”
    • Also stated in: § Vincenzo Tiberio: a Forgotten Pioneer · plain
      “Despite the strength of his data and the novelty of his hypothesis, Tiberio’s work went largely unnoticed by the scientific establishment of his day.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [5] Martines V La Torre G. Vincenzo Tiberio, a precursor of penicillin studies. Ann Ig 1996; 8: 325- 7. 9026046

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Fleming's paper documented antibacterial properties of penicillin against Gram-positive organisms including Staphylococcus and Streptococcus, while leaving mammalian tissues unharmed.

    “His paper documented the antibacterial properties of penicillin against a variety of Gram-positive organisms, including Staphylococcus and Streptococcus, while leaving mammalian tissues unharmed.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [2] Fleming A. On the antibacterial action of cultures of a Penicillium, with special reference to their use in the isolation of B. influenzae. Br J Exp Pathol 1929; 10: 226- 36. PMC2566493 11545337

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    By mid-1944, penicillin was produced in quantities sufficient to treat thousands of Allied soldiers and distributed to military hospitals, where it dramatically reduced mortality from wound infections, pneumonia, and venereal diseases such as syphilis and gonorrhea.

    “By mid-1944, in time for the D-Day invasion of Normandy, penicillin was being produced in quantities sufficient to treat thousands of Allied soldiers. It was distributed to military hospitals across Europe and the Pacific, where it dramatically reduced mortality from wound infections, pneumonia, and venereal diseases such as syphilis and gonorrhea [7] (Fig. 5).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [7] Perciaccante A Coralli A Lippi D Appenzeller O Bianucci R. Vincenzo Tiberio (1869-1915) and the dawn of the antibiotic age. Intern Emerg Med 2019; 14: 1363- 4. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11739-019-02116-1. 10.1007/s11739-019-02116-1 31154612 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In 1946, Pezzi published a commentary highlighting the significance of Tiberio's 1895 study and argued that it represented one of the earliest documented recognitions of mold-derived antibacterial substances.

    “In 1946, Pezzi published a commentary highlighting the significance of Tiberio’s 1895 study and argued that it represented one of the earliest documented recognitions of mold-derived antibacterial substances [6].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [6] Pezzi G. Un italiano precursore degli studi sulla medicina. Ann Med Nav Colon 1946; 51.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Mary Hunt brought a moldy cantaloupe from a Peoria market; the mold on its rind, identified as Penicillium chrysogenum, was significantly more productive than Fleming's original P. notatum isolate; NRRL designated it NRRL 1951, which became the genetic foundation for all subsequent industrial penicillin production.

    “The mold growing on its rind, later identified as Penicillium chrysogenum, was found to be significantly more productive than Fleming’s original P. notatum isolate. The NRRL team designated this high-yielding strain as NRRL 1951, and it became the genetic foundation for all subsequent industrial penicillin production [9].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [9] Bud R. Penicillin: Triumph and tragedy. Oxford: Oxford University Press 2007.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Over 30 years before Fleming, Vincenzo Tiberio conducted controlled studies on the bactericidal effects of mold extracts and published results that went largely unnoticed by the scientific community.

    “However, over 30 years earlier, Italian physician Vincenzo Tiberio (1869-1915) had conducted controlled studies on the bactericidal effects of mold extracts, publishing results that went largely unnoticed by the scientific community.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [3] Tiberio V. Sugli estratti di alcune muffe. Ann Igiene Sper 1895; 5: 91- 103.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Early penicillin supplies were so limited that the drug had to be recovered from patients' urine and reused.

    “However, early supplies were so limited that the drug had to be recovered from patients’ urine and reused.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [9] Bud R. Penicillin: Triumph and tragedy. Oxford: Oxford University Press 2007.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    While Fleming is rightfully credited, the early work of figures like Tiberio reminds us that the path to discovery is often long, collaborative, and overlooked.

    “While Fleming is rightfully credited, the early work of figures like Tiberio reminds us that the path to discovery is often long, collaborative, and overlooked.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The standard narrative of penicillin discovery often neglects earlier contributions, particularly Tiberio's.
28 of 28

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Penicillin was the first widely effective antibiotic.

    “Penicillin, the first widely effective antibiotic, was discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1928 when he observed that a Penicillium mold inhibited bacterial growth [1, 2].”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The standard narrative of penicillin discovery often neglects earlier contributions, particularly Tiberio's.

    “However, this standard narrative often neglects earlier contributions, particularly those of Italian physician Vincenzo Tiberio, who reported similar antibacterial effects of mold extracts over thirty years before Fleming [2].”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Florey, Chain, and their collaborators were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1945, alongside Fleming.

    “The contributions of Florey, Chain, and their collaborators were so critical to the practical realization of penicillin’s promise that they were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1945, alongside Fleming.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    WHO, CDC, and other international agencies have declared antimicrobial resistance one of the top ten global public health threats.

    “The World Health Organization (WHO), alongside the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and other international agencies, has declared antimicrobial resistance (AMR) one of the top ten global public health threats.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Pharmaceutical companies have largely abandoned antibiotic development due to low profitability and high regulatory hurdles.

    “Moreover, research incentives and public-private partnerships are urgently needed to reinvigorate antibiotic discovery, particularly since pharmaceutical companies have largely abandoned antibiotic development due to low profitability and high regulatory hurdles.”
5 of 5

Cites

The publisher hasn’t deposited this paper’s reference list.

Research works printed but not linked: 3

  1. [2]Fleming A. On the antibacterial action of cultures of a Penicillium, with special reference to their use in the isolation of B. influenzae. Br J Exp Pathol 1929; 10: 226- 36. PMC2566493 11545337
  2. [3]Tiberio V. Sugli estratti di alcune muffe. Ann Igiene Sper 1895; 5: 91- 103.
  3. [9]Bud R. Penicillin: Triumph and tragedy. Oxford: Oxford University Press 2007.

Related

Authors
Varotto, E., Galassi, F. M., Martini, M., Gallitto, L., & Ingaliso, L.
Affiliations
  • Flinders University (AU)
  • University of Łódź (PL)
  • University of Genoa (IT)
  • University of Catania (IT)
ORCID
Venue
Journal of Preventive Medicine and Hygiene
Publisher
Journal of Preventive Medicine and Hygiene
Published
2025-07-25
Volume
66
Issue
2
Pages
E269-E276
ISSN
1121-2233 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.15167/2421-4248/jpmh2025.66.2.3647
PMC
PMC12606539
OpenAlex
W4416275964
Cited by
0
References
0
FWCI
0.00
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
public-domain
Locations
  • Journal of preventive medicine and hygiene (publishedVersion, public-domain)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • CINECA IRIS Institutial Research Information System (University of Genoa) (submittedVersion)
  • Nova Science Publishers (Nova Science Publishers, Inc.) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
  • Università degli Studi di Genova
Topics
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Radiology, Nuclear Medicine and Imaging › Historical Medical Research and Treatments
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History › Medical History and Innovations
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History and Philosophy of Science › History of Science and Medicine
Keywords
penicillin, Alexander Fleming, history of antibiotics, bactericidal activity, World War II, scientific recognition, forgotten pioneers
MeSH terms
Anti-Bacterial Agents, Bacteriology, Humans, Italy, London, Penicillins, History, 19th Century, History, 20th Century

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