CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 1,628Antibiotic Use and ResistanceAntibiotic Resistance in BacteriaHistorical Medical Research and Treatments

A brief history of the antibiotic era: lessons learned and challenges for the future

Open access
Aminov, Rustam I.·2010·Frontiers in Microbiology
DOI 10.3389/fmicb.2010.00134PMC PMC3109405
Open this paper in CoChat — free accountOpen PDF

Abstract

This article gives a very brief overview of the antibiotic era, beginning from the discovery of first antibiotics until the present day situation, which is marred by the emergence of hard-to-treat multiple antibiotic-resistant infections. The ways of responding to the antibiotic resistance challenges such as the development of novel strategies in the search for new antimicrobials, designing more effective preventive measures and, importantly, better understanding the ecology of antibiotics and antibiotic resistance are discussed. The expansion of conceptual frameworks based on recent developments in the field of antimicrobials, antibiotic resistance, and chemotherapy is also discussed.

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3389/fmicb.2010.00134

Cites

1 of 1 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • If unchecked, AMR could cause 10 million deaths annually by 2050, eclipsing mortality from cancer and cardiovascular disease.

    “According to recent projections, if unchecked, AMR could cause 10 million deaths annually by 2050, eclipsing mortality from cancer and cardiovascular disease [14-16].”

    From The penicillin revolution and the role of the forgotten pioneer Vincenzo Tiberio (1869-1915): discovery, development and legacy. (2025) · cites this paper as [16]

    The Antibiotic Resistance section reports annual deaths from resistant infections in the EU and hospital-acquired bacterial infections in the United States. Searches for the 10-million-by-2050 projection and the cancer and cardiovascular-disease comparison found no passage addressing either claim in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.75)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

The self-check needs the paper’s full text.

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 73

  1. Abraham E. P. Chain E. (1940). An enzyme from bacteria able to destroy penicillin. Nature 146, 837 10.1038/146837a0 3055168 · DOI
  2. Aminov R. I. (2009). The role of antibiotics and antibiotic resistance in nature. Environ. Microbiol. 11, 2970– 2988 10.1111/j.1462-2920.2009.01972.x 19601960 · DOI
  3. Aminov R. I. Mackie R. I. (2007). Evolution and ecology of antibiotic resistance genes. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 271, 147– 161 10.1111/j.1574-6968.2007.00757.x 17490428 · DOI
  4. Armelagos G. J. (1969). Disease in ancient Nubia. Science 163, 225– 258 10.1126/science.163.3864.255 5762604 · DOI
  5. Bassett E. J. Keith M. S. Armelagos G. J. Martin D. L. Villanueva A. R. (1980). Tetracycline-labeled human bone from ancient Sudanese Nubia (A.D.350). Science 209, 1532– 1534 10.1126/science.7001623 7001623 · DOI
  6. Beaber J. W. Hochhut B. Waldor M. K. (2004). SOS response promotes horizontal dissemination of antibiotic resistance genes. Nature 427, 72– 74 10.1038/nature02241 14688795 · DOI · Paper page
  7. Bengtsson B. Wierup M. (2006). Antimicrobial resistance in Scandinavia after ban of antimicrobial growth promoters. Anim. Biotechnol. 17, 147– 156 10.1080/10495390600956920 17127526 · DOI
  8. Bush K. Macielag M. J. (2010). New β-lactam antibiotics and β-lactamase inhibitors. Expert Opin. Ther. Pat. 20, 1277– 1293 10.1517/13543776.2010.515588 20839927 · DOI
  9. Cha J. Y. Ishiwata A. Mobashery S. (2004). A novel β-lactamase activity from a penicillin-binding protein of Treponema pallidum and why syphilis is still treatable with penicillin. J. Biol. Chem. 279, 14917– 14921 10.1074/jbc.M400666200 14747460 · DOI
  10. Chain E. Florey H. W. Gardner A. D. Heatley N. G. Jennings M. A. Orr-Ewing J. Sanders A. G. (2005). The classic: penicillin as a chemotherapeutic agent. 1940. Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res. 439, 23– 26 10.1097/01.blo.0000183429.83168.07 16205132 · DOI
  11. Chee-Sanford J. C. Mackie R. I. Koike S. Krapac I. G. Lin Y. F. Yannarell A. C. Maxwell S. Aminov R. I. (2009). Fate and transport of antibiotic residues and antibiotic resistance genes following land application of manure waste. J. Environ. Qual. 38, 1086– 1108 10.2134/jeq2008.0128 19398507 · DOI
  12. Chopra I. Hesse L. O'Neill A. (2002). “Discovery and development of new anti-bacterial drugs,” in Pharmacochemistry Library,. vol 32, Trends in Drug Research III, ed. van der Goot H. (Amsterdam: Elsevier), 213– 225
  13. Clatworthy A. E. Pierson E. Hung D. T. (2007). Targeting virulence: a new paradigm for antimicrobial therapy. Nat. Chem. Biol. 3, 541– 548 10.1038/nchembio.2007.24 17710100 · DOI
  14. Cook M. Molto E. Anderson C. (1989). Fluorochrome labelling in Roman period skeletons from Dakhleh Oasis, Egypt. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 80, 137– 143 10.1002/ajpa.1330800202 2679120 · DOI
  15. Cui L. Su X. Z. (2009). Discovery, mechanisms of action and combination therapy of artemisinin. Expert Rev. Anti. Infect. Ther. 7, 999– 1013 10.1586/eri.09.68 19803708 PMC2778258 · DOI
  16. Davies J. Spiegelman G. B. Yim G. (2006). The world of subinhibitory antibiotic concentrations. Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 9, 445– 453 10.1016/j.mib.2006.08.006 16942902 · DOI
  17. de la Cueva-Méndez G. Pimentel B. (2007). Gene and cell survival: lessons from prokaryotic plasmid R1. EMBO Rep. 8, 458– 464 10.1038/sj.embor.7400957 17471262 PMC1866204 · DOI
  18. Devasahayam G. Scheld W. M. Hoffman P. S. (2010). Newer antibacterial drugs for a new century. Expert Opin. Investig. Drugs 19, 215– 234 10.1517/13543780903505092 20053150 PMC2831224 · DOI
  19. Diacon A. H. Pym A. Grobusch M. (2009). The diarylquinoline TMC207 for multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. N. Engl. J. Med. 360, 2397– 2405 10.1056/NEJMoa0808427 19494215 · DOI
  20. Domagk G. (1935). Ein Beitrag zur Chemotherapie der bakteriellen Infektionen. Dtsch. Med. Wochenschr. 61, 250 10.1055/s-0028-1129486 · DOI
  21. Dubern J. F. Diggle S. P. (2008). Quorum sensing by 2-alkyl-4-quinolones in Pseudomonas aeruginosa and other bacterial species. Mol Biosyst 4, 882– 888 10.1039/b803796p 18704225 · DOI
  22. Ehrlich P. Hata S. (1910). Die Experimentelle Chemotherapie der Spirilosen. Berlin: Julius Springer
  23. Emmerich R. Löw O. (1899). Bakteriolytische enzyme als Ursache der erworbenen Immunität und die Heilung von Infectionskrankheiten durch dieselben. Z. Hyg. 31, 1– 65 10.1007/BF02206499 · DOI
  24. Enne V. I. Bennett P. M. Livermore D. M. Hall L. M. (2004). Enhancement of host fitness by the sul2-coding plasmid p9123 in the absence of selective pressure. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 53, 958– 963 10.1093/jac/dkh217 15102746 · DOI
  25. Fajardo A. Martínez J. L. (2008). Antibiotics as signals that trigger specific bacterial responses. Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 11, 161– 167 10.1016/j.mib.2008.02.006 18373943 · DOI
  26. Falkinham J. O. 3rd Wall T. E. Tanner J. R. Tawaha K. Alali F. Q. Li C. Oberlies N. H. (2009). Proliferation of antibiotic-producing bacteria and concomitant antibiotic production as the basis for the antibiotic activity of Jordan's red soils. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 75, 2735– 2741 10.1128/AEM.00104-09 19286796 PMC2681674 · DOI
  27. Fevre C. Jbel M. Passet V. Weill F. X. Grimont P. A. Brisse S. (2005). Six groups of the OXY β-lactamase evolved over millions of years in Klebsiella oxytoca. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 49, 3453– 3462 10.1128/AAC.49.8.3453-3462.2005 16048960 PMC1196214 · DOI
  28. Garau G. Di Guilmi A. M. Hall B. G. (2005). Structure-based phylogeny of the metallo-beta-lactamases. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 49, 2778– 2784 10.1128/AAC.49.7.2778-2784.2005 15980349 PMC1168685 · DOI
  29. Garriss G. Waldor M. K. Burrus V. (2009). Mobile antibiotic resistance encoding elements promote their own diversity. PLoS Genet. 5, e1000775 10.1371/journal.pgen.1000775 20019796 PMC2786100 · DOI
  30. Gartin M. Brewis A. A. Schwartz N. A. (2010). Nonprescription antibiotic therapy: cultural models on both sides of the counter and both sides of the border. Med. Anthropol. Q. 24, 85– 107 10.1111/j.1548-1387.2010.01086.x 20420303 · DOI
  31. Goossens H. Ferech M. Vander Stichele R. Elseviers M. ESAC Project Group (2005). Outpatient antibiotic use in Europe and association with resistance: a cross-national database study. Lancet 365, 579– 587 15708101
  32. Gotoh Y. Eguchi Y. Watanabe T. Okamoto S. Doi A. Utsumi R. (2010). Two-component signal transduction as potential drug targets in pathogenic bacteria. Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 13, 232– 239 10.1016/j.mib.2010.01.008 20138000 · DOI
  33. Griffin M. O. Fricovsky E. Ceballos G. Villarreal F. (2010). Tetracyclines: a pleitropic family of compounds with promising therapeutic properties. Review of the literature. Am. J. Physiol. Cell Physiol. 299, C539– C548 10.1152/ajpcell.00047.2010 20592239 PMC2944325 · DOI
  34. Grigoryan L. Burgerhof J. G. Degener J. E. Deschepper R. Lundborg C. S. Monnet D. L. Scicluna E. A. Birkin J. Haaijer-Ruskamp F. M. SAR Consortium (2007). Attitudes, beliefs and knowledge concerning antibiotic use and self-medication: a comparative European study. Pharmacoepidemiol. Drug. Saf. 16, 1234– 1243 10.1002/pds.1479 17879325 · DOI
  35. Hall B. G. Barlow M. (2004). Evolution of the serine beta-lactamases: past, present and future. Drug Resist. Updat. 7, 111– 123 10.1016/j.drup.2004.02.003 15158767 · DOI
  36. Hancock R. E. Sahl H. G. (2006). Antimicrobial and host-defense peptides as new anti-infective therapeutic strategies. Nat. Biotechnol. 24, 1551– 1557 10.1038/nbt1267 17160061 · DOI
  37. Hegde S. S. Vetting M. W. Roderick S. L. Mitchenall L. A. Maxwell A. Takiff H. E. Blanchard J. S. (2005). A fluoroquinolone resistance protein from Mycobacterium tuberculosis that mimics DNA. Science 308, 1480– 1483 10.1126/science.1110699 15933203 · DOI
  38. Hegreness M. Shoresh N. Damian D. Hartl D. Kishony R. (2008). Accelerated evolution of resistance in multidrug environments. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 105, 13977– 13981 10.1073/pnas.0805965105 18779569 PMC2544564 · DOI · Paper page
  39. Hughes C. C. Fenical W. (2010). Antibacterials from the sea. Chemistry 16, 12512– 12525 10.1002/chem.201001279 20845412 PMC3071975 · DOI
  40. Kaufmann G. F. Sartorio R. Lee S. H. Rogers C. J. Meijler M. M. Moss J. A. Clapham B. Brogan A. P. Dickerson T. J. Janda K. D. (2005). Revisiting quorum sensing: discovery of additional chemical and biological functions for 3-oxo-N-acylhomoserine lactones. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 102, 309– 314 10.1073/pnas.0408639102 15623555 PMC544315 · DOI
  41. Keller M. A. Stiehm E. R. (2000). Passive immunity in prevention and treatment of infectious diseases. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 13, 602– 614 10.1128/CMR.13.4.602-614.2000 11023960 PMC88952 · DOI
  42. Kobayashi T. Nonaka L. Maruyama F. Suzuki S. (2007). Molecular evidence for the ancient origin of the ribosomal protection protein that mediates tetracycline resistance in bacteria. J. Mol. Evol. 65, 228– 235 10.1007/s00239-007-9006-z 17676364 · DOI
  43. Kohanski M. A. Dwyer D. J. Collins J. J. (2010a). How antibiotics kill bacteria: from targets to networks. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 8, 423– 435 10.1038/nrmicro2333 20440275 PMC2896384 · DOI
  44. Kohanski M. A. DePristo M. A. Collins J. J. (2010b). Sublethal antibiotic treatment leads to multidrug resistance via radical-induced mutagenesis. Mol. Cell 37, 311– 320 10.1016/j.molcel.2010.01.003 20159551 PMC2840266 · DOI · Paper page
  45. Kumarasamy K. K. Toleman M. A. Walsh T. R. Bagaria J. Butt F. Balakrishnan R. Chaudhary U. Doumith M. Giske C. G. Irfan S. Krishnan P. Kumar A. V. Maharjan S. Mushtaq S. Noorie T. Paterson D. L. Pearson A. Perry C. Pike R. Rao B. Ray U. Sarma J. B. Sharma M. Sheridan E. Thirunarayan M. A. Turton J. Upadhyay S. Warner M. Welfare W. Livermore D. M. Woodford N. (2010). Emergence of a new antibiotic resistance mechanism in India, Pakistan, and the UK: a molecular, biological, and epidemiological study. Lancet Infect. Dis. 10, 597– 602 10.1016/S1473-3099(10)70143-2 20705517 PMC2933358 · DOI · Paper page
  46. Lee H. H. Molla M. N. Cantor C. R. Collins J. J. (2010). Bacterial charity work leads to population-wide resistance. Nature 467, 82– 85 10.1038/nature09354 20811456 PMC2936489 · DOI · Paper page
  47. Levin B. R. Bull J. J. (2004). Population and evolutionary dynamics of phage therapy. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 2, 166– 173 10.1038/nrmicro822 15040264 · DOI
  48. Lloyd N. C. Morgan H. W. Nicholson B. K. Ronimus R. S. (2005). The Composition of Ehrlich's Salvarsan: resolution of a century-old debate. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 44, 941– 944 10.1002/anie.200461471 15624113 · DOI
  49. Lock R. L. Harry E. J. (2008). Cell-division inhibitors: new insights for future antibiotics. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 7, 324– 338 10.1038/nrd2510 18323848 · DOI
  50. Lomovskaya O. Bostian K. A. (2006). Practical applications and feasibility of efflux pump inhibitors in the clinic--a vision for applied use. Biochem. Pharmacol. 71, 910– 908 10.1016/j.bcp.2005.12.008 16427026 · DOI
  51. Lu T. K. Collins J. J. (2009). Engineered bacteriophage targeting gene networks as adjuvants for antibiotic therapy. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 106, 4629– 4633 10.1073/pnas.0800442106 19255432 PMC2649960 · DOI
  52. MacNeil I. A. Tiong C. L. Minor C. August P. R. Grossman T. H. Loiacono K. A. Lynch B. A. Phillips T. Narula S. Sundaramoorthi R. Tyler A. Aldredge T. Long H. Gilman M. Holt D. Osburne M. S. (2001). Expression and isolation of antimicrobial small molecules from soil DNA libraries. J. Mol. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 3, 301– 308 11321587
  53. Mahoney J. Arnold R. Harris A. (1943). Penicillin treatment of early syphilis. A preliminary report. Verer. Dis. Inform. 24, 355– 357 PMC1527687 18015910
  54. Makovitzki A. Avrahami D. Shai Y. (2006). Ultrashort antibacterial and antifungal lipopeptides. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 103, 15997– 16002 10.1073/pnas.0606129103 17038500 PMC1635116 · DOI
  55. Martínez J. L. (2008). Antibiotics and antibiotic resistance genes in natural environments. Science 321, 365– 367 10.1126/science.1159483 18635792 · DOI
  56. Monk A. B. Rees C. D. Barrow P. Hagens S. Harper D. R. (2010). Bacteriophage applications: where are we now?. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 51, 363– 369 10.1111/j.1472-765X.2010.02916.x 20796209 · DOI
  57. Negrea A. Bjur E. Ygberg S. E. (2007). Salicylidene acylhydrazides that affect type III protein secretion in Salmonella enterica serovar typhimurium. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 51, 2867– 2876 10.1128/AAC.00223-07 17548496 PMC1932493 · DOI
  58. Nelson M. L. Dinardo A. Hochberg J. Armelagos G. J. (2010). Brief communication: mass spectroscopic characterization of tetracycline in the skeletal remains of an ancient population from Sudanese Nubia 350–550 CE. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 143, 151– 154 10.1002/ajpa.21340 20564518 · DOI
  59. Njoroge J. Sperandio V. (2009). Jamming bacterial communication: new approaches for the treatment of infectious diseases. EMBO Mol. Med. 1, 201– 210 10.1002/emmm.200900032 20049722 PMC2801573 · DOI
  60. Payne D. J. Gwynn M. N. Holmes D. J. Pompliano D. L. (2007). Drugs for bad bugs: confronting the challenges of antibacterial discovery. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 6, 29– 40 10.1038/nrd2201 17159923 · DOI · Paper page
  61. Poirel L. Rodriguez-Martinez J. M. Mammeri H. Liard A. Nordmann P. (2005). Origin of plasmid-mediated quinolone resistance determinant QnrA. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 49, 3523– 3525 10.1128/AAC.49.8.3523-3525.2005 16048974 PMC1196254 · DOI
  62. Rahman H. Austin B. Mitchell W. J. Morris P. C. Jamieson D. J. Adams D. R. Spragg A. M. Schweizer M. (2010). Novel anti-infective compounds from marine bacteria. Mar. Drugs 8, 498– 518 10.3390/md8030498 20411112 PMC2857357 · DOI
  63. Rasko D. A. Moreira C. G. Li de R. Reading N. C. Ritchie J. M. Waldor M. K. Williams N. Taussig R. Wei S. Roth M. Hughes D. T. Huntley J. F. Fina M. W. Falck J. R. Sperandio V. (2008). Targeting QseC signaling and virulence for antibiotic development. Science 321, 1078– 1080 18719281 PMC2605406
  64. Robertson G. T. Bonventre E. J. Doyle T. B. (2008). In vitro evaluation of CBR-2092, a novel rifamycin-quinolone hybrid antibiotic: studies of the mode of action in Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 52, 2313– 2323 10.1128/AAC.01649-07 18443108 PMC2443886 · DOI
  65. Rollo I. M. Williamson J. Plackett R. L. (1952). Acquired resistance to penicillin and to neoarsphenamine in Spirochaeta recurrentis. Br. J. Pharmacol. Chemother. 7, 33– 41 14904900 PMC1509266
  66. Schimmel P. Tao J. Hill J. (1998). Aminoacyl tRNA synthetases as targets for new anti-infectives. FASEB J. 12, 1599– 1609 9837850
  67. Sobell H. M. (1985). Actinomycin and DNA transcription. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 82, 5328– 5331 10.1073/pnas.82.16.5328 2410919 PMC390561 · DOI
  68. Song J. S. Jeon J. H. Lee J. H. Jeong S. H. Jeong B. C. Kim S. J. Lee J. H. Lee S. H. (2005). Molecular characterization of TEM-type beta-lactamases identified in cold-seep sediments of Edison Seamount (south of Lihir Island, Papua New Guinea). J. Microbiol. 43, 172– 178 15880093
  69. Su Z. Honek J. F. (2007). Emerging bacterial enzyme targets. Curr. Opin. Investig. Drugs 8, 140– 149 17328230
  70. Tarkkanen A. M. Heinonen T. Jogi R. (2009). P1A recombinant β-lactamase prevents emergence of antimicrobial resistance in gut microflora of healthy subjects during intravenous administration of ampicillin. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 53, 2455– 2462 10.1128/AAC.00853-08 19307374 PMC2687246 · DOI
  71. Walsh C. T. (2003). Antibiotics: Actions, Origins, and Resistance. Washington, DC: ASM Press
  72. Wong R. W. Hägg U. Samaranayake L. Yuen M. K. Seneviratne C. J. Kao R. (2010). Antimicrobial activity of Chinese medicine herbs against common bacteria in oral biofilm. A pilot study. Int. J. Oral Maxillofac. Surg. 39, 599– 605 10.1016/j.ijom.2010.02.024 20418062 PMC7126725 · DOI
  73. Wright G. D. (2010). Antibiotic resistance in the environment: a link to the clinic? Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 13, 589– 594 10.1016/j.mib.2010.08.005 20850375 · DOI · Paper page

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Authors
Aminov, R. I.
Affiliations
University of Aberdeen (GB)
Corresponding author
Aminov, Rustam I.
ORCID
Aminov, Rustam I.
Venue
Frontiers in Microbiology
Publisher
Frontiers Media SA
Published
2010
Volume
1
Pages
134-134
ISSN
1664-302X (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3389/fmicb.2010.00134
PMC
PMC3109405
OpenAlex
W2146401071
Cited by
1,628
References
1
Citations by year
2026: 89 · 2025: 131 · 2024: 174 · 2023: 192 · 2022: 169 · 2021: 186 · 2020: 158 · 2019: 155 · 2018: 110 · 2017: 87 · 2016: 83 · 2015: 36 · 2014: 24 · 2013: 17 · 2012: 10
FWCI
14.79
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
cc-by
Locations
  • Frontiers in Microbiology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Funders
Scottish Government
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology › Antibiotic Use and Resistance
  • Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Medicine › Antibiotic Resistance in Bacteria
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Radiology, Nuclear Medicine and Imaging › Historical Medical Research and Treatments
Keywords
antibiotic era, history of antibiotics, antibiotic resistance, multidrug-resistant infections, antimicrobial drug development, antibiotic stewardship, chemotherapy

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review