Redefining the timing and circumstances of the chicken's introduction to Europe and north-west Africa

May combine two claims.

The two chicken bones from Howe, Orkney, returned direct dates of fourteenth-fifteenth century AD (CKN11) and seventeenth-twentieth centuries AD (CKN12), respectively, rather than 200-800 AD.

“the two chicken bones selected from Howe, Orkney, though supposedly dating between 200-800 AD returned direct dates of fourteenth-fifteenth century AD (CKN11) and seventeenth-twentieth centuries AD (CKN12), respectively.”

May combine two claims.

The two modern individuals (CKN18 and CKN19) had more positive δ13C values and more negative δ15N values relative to the two medieval-dated specimens (CKN20 and CKN21).

“The two modern individuals (CKN18 and CKN19) had more positive δ 13 C values and more negative δ 15 N values relative to the two medieval-dated specimens (CKN20 and CKN21)”

May combine two claims.

Specimen CKN1 from Yabalkovo, Bulgaria, was c.5,000 years younger and dated to the eleventh-twelfth centuries AD.

“specimen CKN1 from Yabalkovo (Bulgaria) was c.5,000 years younger and dated to the eleventh-twelfth centuries AD.”

May combine two claims.

The hen from Weston Down (CKN8) was mature and had a well-healed leg fracture, which could indicate evidence of human care.

“Similarly, the hen from Weston Down (CKN8) was mature and had a well-healed leg fracture (Fig 3C) which could indicate evidence of human care.”

May combine two claims.

The earliest radiocarbon dates were from two Italian sites: Forcello (CKN5) and Orvieto (CKN6), both consistent with their sixth and fifth century BC contexts.

“The earliest radiocarbon dates were from two Italian sites: Forcello (CKN5) and Orvieto (CKN6), both of which were consistent with their sixth and fifth century BC contexts.”

May combine two claims.

Direct dates from the other articulated remains corroborated their stratigraphic phasing, and they are among the earliest regional specimens in our European dataset.

“However, direct dates from the other articulated remains corroborated their stratigraphic phasing, and they are among the earliest regional specimens in our European dataset.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The specimen from Forcello (CKN5) derived from an articulated skeleton.

“The specimen from Forcello (CKN5) again derived from an articulated skeleton.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Iron Age Weston Down specimen CKN8 exhibits injured bone.

“showing healthy bone on the left and injured bone on the right (CKN8)”

May combine two claims.

Through Late Iron Age and Early Roman Britain, there is an observable shift in frequency of chicken remains and towards human-chicken co-burials.

“Through Late Iron Age and Early Roman Britain, there is an observable shift not only in the frequency of chicken remains within zooarchaeological assemblages (Fig 5A), but also towards human-chicken co-burials (Fig 5C)”

May combine two claims.

Specimen CKN22, thought to date to 1250-1100 BC, was determined to be post-1954 and is not included in the calibrated radiocarbon results.

“CKN22 (thought to date to 1250-1100 BC) was determined to be 'post-1954' and is not included.”

May combine two claims.

Samples CKN1 to CKN21 produced C:N ratios between 3.2-3.4, indicative of well-preserved collagen.

“Samples CKN1 to CKN21 produced C:N ratios between 3.2-3.4,indicative of well-preserved collagen (DeNiro 1985;Ambrose 1990;van Klinken 1999).”

• cites DeNiro 1985Not checked yet

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• cites Ambrose 1990Not checked yet

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• cites van Klinken 1999Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

There is little evidence to support the hypothesis that chickens were domesticated primarily as a food source.

“though there is little evidence to support this hypothesis”

May combine two claims.

It seems likely that chickens were transported throughout the Mediterranean along routes ecologically suited to them, likely via early Greek, Etruscan and Phoenician maritime trade.

“It seems likely that chickens were transported throughout the Mediterranean along routes ecologically suited to them (Pitt et al. 2016), likely via early Greek, Etruscan and Phoenician maritime trade (Peters et al. in prep).”

• cites Pitt et al. 2016Not checked yet

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• cites Peters et al. in prepNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The most significant factor obfuscating the chicken's bio-cultural history is imprecise dating.

“The most significant factor obfuscating the chicken's bio-cultural history is imprecise dating.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Current models suggest that, following their ninth-sixth century BC introduction in the Horn of Africa, chickens spread across the continent slowly.

“This is consistent with current models suggesting that, following their ninth-sixth century BC introduction in the Horn of Africa (Woldekiros & D'Andrea 2016: 334), chickens spread across the continent slowly.”

• cites Woldekiros & D'Andrea 2016Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Such examples of direct dating are rare, yet they have consistently highlighted the fallibility of assigning chicken remains to stratigraphic dates.

“Such examples of direct dating are rare, yet they have consistently highlighted the fallibility of assigning chicken remains to stratigraphic dates.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Helms (1993) suggested that, in many cultures, animals and things derived from the 'outer realms' are often attributed with cosmological powers.

“Helms (1993) suggested that, in many cultures, animals and things derived from the 'outer realms' are often attributed with cosmological powers.”

• cites Helms 1993Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Contextual information, and whether specimens were recovered as isolated bones or complete skeletons, can indicate risk of intrusion, whilst also revealing human attitudes towards chickens.

“Contextual information, and whether specimens were recovered as isolated bones or complete skeletons, can indicate risk of intrusion, whilst also revealing human attitudes towards chickens.”

May combine two claims.

Flink et al. (2014) directly dated a chicken bone from an Iron Age context at Altenburg, Germany, and found it to be a recent intrusion (150±30 BP, 1667-1903 cal AD, 95.4%).

“Flink et al. (2014) directly dated a chicken bone from an Iron Age context (280-15 BC) at Altenburg, Germany, and found it to be a recent intrusion (150±30 BP, 1667-1903 cal AD, 95.4%).”

• cites Flink et al. 2014Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Ancient and modern chickens can be differentiated morphologically since modern chickens grow much faster and their bones are larger in every dimension than ancient specimens.

“Bennett et al. (2018) demonstrated that ancient and modern chickens can be differentiated morphologically since modern chickens grow much faster and their bones are larger in every dimension than ancient specimens.”

• cites Bennett et al. 2018Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

This result highlights the ease with which chicken bones migrate through contexts, thus necessitating confirmation by direct dating.

“This result highlights the ease with which chicken bones migrate through contexts, thus necessitating confirmation by direct dating.”

May combine two claims.

The broadest radiocarbon date range of Forcello and Orvieto extends to the mid-eighth century BC, likely reflecting the Hallstatt plateau.

“Their broadest radiocarbon date range extends to the mid-eighth century BC but this likely reflects the Hallstatt plateau, a flat area of the calibration curve that reduces the precision of determinations during this period.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Modern chicken diets contain higher quantities of C4 plants, notably maize, and far lower levels of protein relative to their ancient counterparts.

“modern chicken diets contain higher quantities of C4 plants, notably maize, and far lower levels of protein relative to their ancient counterparts (Bennett et al. 2018).”

• cites Bennett et al. 2018Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

In Italy, the earliest identified chicken is from a tenth-ninth century BC tomb, with other possible eighth century examples, although none have been directly dated.

“The same is true for Italy, where the earliest identified chicken is from a tenth-ninth century BC tomb (Corbino et al. in press), with other possible eighth century examples (see OSM) (De Grossi Mazzorin & Minniti 2019; Trentacoste 2020), although none of these have been directly dated.”

• cites Corbino et al. in pressNot checked yet

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• cites De Grossi Mazzorin & Minniti 2019Not checked yet

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• cites Trentacoste 2020Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

The trend toward perceiving chickens solely as dietary protein has accelerated to the present day.

“The trend toward perceiving chickens solely as dietary protein has accelerated to the present day.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

ORAU maintains a continual programme of quality assurance procedures, in addition to participation in international inter-comparisons, which indicate no laboratory offsets and demonstrate the validity of the precision quoted.

“ORAU maintains a continual programme of quality assurance procedures, in addition to participation in international inter-comparisons (Scott et al., 2010), which indicate no laboratory offsets and demonstrate the validity of the precision quoted.”

• cites Scott et al., 2010Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

50% of samples were replicated by extracting twice from independent samples of the same bone followed by PCR amplification and DNA sequencing.

“50% of samples were replicated by extracting twice from independent samples of the same bone followed by PCR amplification and DNA sequencing.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Of the >70 billion chickens now on the planet, most are commercial broilers that grow exceptionally quickly during their short lives (average slaughter age 42 days).

“Of the >70 billion chickens now on the planet, most are commercial broilers that grow exceptionally quickly during their short lives (the average slaughter age is 42 days -EFSA 2010).”

• cites EFSA 2010Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Contrary to popular belief, chickens were not a Roman introduction but rather appear to have been present in low numbers from the Early/Middle Iron Age in England.

“Contrary to popular belief, chickens were not a Roman introduction but rather appear to have been present in low numbers from the Early/Middle Iron Age”

• cites Kitch 2006Not checked yet

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• cites Hambleton 2008Not checked yet

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• cites Maltby 1997Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Recent changes in chicken size, shape, genetics, and diet allow for a more robust assessment of their intrusive status.

“Though recent changes in chicken size, shape, genetics, and diet allow for a more robust assessment of their intrusive status (Figs. 3 & 4)”

May combine two claims.

At Fishbourne Palace, chickens comprised 8% of the total assemblage, far higher than on other Iron Age/Roman sites.

“Here, chickens comprised 8% of the total assemblage, far higher than on other Iron Age/Roman sites (Fig 5A).”

May combine two claims.

On other occasions, the inclusion of chickens in graves is more obviously a food offering, a practice that becomes more common through the course of the Roman period.

“On other occasions, the inclusion of chickens in graves is more obviously a food offering, a practice that becomes more common through the course of the Roman period (White 2007).”

• cites White 2007Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Historical, iconographic and zooarchaeological records are in accord that chickens were present in Greece by the fifth century BC but there is less evidence that they were established before the ninth century BC.

“Historical, iconographic and zooarchaeological records are in accord that chickens were present in Greece by the fifth century BC but there is less evidence that they were established before the ninth century BC”

• cites Johansson 2012Not checked yet

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• cites Richter 1968Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

In the Levant, though chickens were present in the ninth/eighth century BC, it was not until the fourth/third century BC that they became a common meat resource.

“Similarly, in the Levant, though chickens were present in the ninth/eighth century BC (Peters et al. in prep.) it was not until the fourth/third century BC that they became a common meat resource (Perry-Gal et al. 2015).”

• cites Peters et al. in prep.Not checked yet

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• cites Perry-Gal et al. 2015Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

These characteristics are also an eloquent expression of how dramatically human-chicken relationships have changed over the last three millennia.

“these characteristics are also an eloquent expression of how dramatically human-chicken relationships have changed over the last three millennia.”

May combine two claims.

Elsewhere in Britain, chickens were not regularly consumed until the third century AD, primarily on highly Romanized towns and military sites.

“Elsewhere in Britain, chickens were not regularly consumed until the third century AD, again primarily on highly Romanized towns and military sites (Maltby et al. 2018).”

• cites Maltby et al. 2018Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Whereas the earliest chickens in Europe were rare and lived into maturity, today this is often inverted.

“Whereas the earliest chickens in Europe were rare and lived into maturity, today this is often inverted.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Modern chickens are seldom buried as individuals or together with people, and instead are often disposed of as fast-food refuse, littered in the street.

“They are seldom buried as individuals or together with people, and instead are often disposed of as fast-food refuse, littered in the street (Fig 5E).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

C:N ratios were not generated for samples CKN22 and CKN23 due to the graphitisation process during AMS analysis at the Leibniz Lab for Radiometric Dating (KIA).

“C:N ratios were not generated for samples CKN22 and CKN23 due to the graphitisation process during AMS analysis at the Leibniz Lab for Radiometric Dating (KIA).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

There is an association between zooarchaeological representation and depositional context, ranging from individual burial to foodstuff to litter.

“The association between A) zooarchaeological representation (Skelton 2019) and depositional context.”

• cites Skelton 2019Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

It is generally accepted that birds were present in the Horn of Africa by the eighth century BC, and it took approximately 1000 years for them to become established across the whole continent, especially the northwest.

“It is generally accepted that whilst the birds were present in the Horn of Africa by the eighth century BC, it took approximately 1000 years for them to become established across the whole continent, especially the northwest.”

• cites MacDonald 1992Not checked yet

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• cites Mwacharo et al. 2013Not checked yet

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• cites Woldekiros and D'Angela 2016Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). The quote only partly states this claim.

Due to isotopic fractionation resulting from this process, samples CKN22 and CKN23 were omitted from the stable isotope analysis.

“Due to the isotopic fractionation resulting from this process, these samples were omitted from the stable isotope analysis (see Figure 4).”

May combine two claims.

The presence of chickens from c. 600BC (and particularly 500-400 BC) in France is widely accepted but the security of their date of introduction is unclear.

“The presence of chickens from c. 600BC (and particularly 500-400 BC) in France is widely accepted but the security of their date of introduction is unclear”

• cites Garcia-Petit 2002Not checked yet

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• cites Lignereux and Obermaier 2012Not checked yet

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• cites Seigle 2016Not checked yet

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