The DOI matches its Crossref record; 43 of the 47 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 34 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Comparing generalized and specific problematic smartphone/internet use: Longitudinal relationships between smartphone application-based addiction and social media addiction and psychological distress
Open accessAbstract
Background and aims: The literature has proposed two types of problematic smartphone/internet use: generalized problematic use and specific problematic use. However, longitudinal findings on the associations between the two types of problematic use and psychological distress are lacking among East-Asians. The present study examined temporal associations between both generalized and specific problematic use of the smartphone/internet, and psychological distress. Methods: Hong Kong University students ( N = 308; 100 males; mean age = 23.75 years; SD ± 5.15) were recruited with follow-ups at three, six, and nine months after baseline assessment. All participants completed the Smartphone Application-Based Addiction Scale (for generalized problematic smartphone/internet use), the Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale (for specific problematic smartphone/internet use), and the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (for psychological distress) in each assessment. Latent growth modeling (LGM) was constructed to understand temporal associations between generalized/specific problematic use and psychological distress. Results: The LGM suggested that the intercept of generalized problematic use was significantly associated with the intercept of psychological distress (standardized coefficient [ β ] = 0.32; P < 0.01). The growth of generalized problematic use was significantly associated with the growth of psychological distress ( β = 0.51; P < 0.01). Moreover, the intercept of specific problematic use was significantly associated with the intercept of psychological distress ( β = 0.28; P < 0.01) and the growth of psychological distress ( β = 0.37; P < 0.01). Conclusion: The initial level of problematic use of smartphone/internet increased the psychological distress among university students. Helping young adults address problematic use of the smartphone/internet may prevent psychological distress.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
In a longitudinal sample of Hong Kong university students, both generalized and specific problematic smartphone/internet use were positively associated with psychological distress over nine months. Initial social media addiction predicted both initial and growth in distress, while growth in generalized problematic use predicted growth in distress.
Key findings
- Generalized problematic use: intercept associated with psychological distress intercept (β = 0.32, P < 0.01); growth associated with growth of psychological distress (β = 0.51, P < 0.01).
- Specific problematic use (social media): intercept associated with psychological distress intercept (β = 0.28, P < 0.01) and with growth of psychological distress (β = 0.37, P < 0.01).
- SABAS, BSMAS, and HADS scores were significantly correlated across all four time points (r = 0.174 to 0.854; all P < 0.01).
- The LGM models supported the direction from problematic use to psychological distress more than the reverse direction; the reverse-direction models had fit concerns, including a Heywood case in the third model and an RMSEA 90% CI of 0.110 in the fourth model.
Methods
- Longitudinal online survey of Hong Kong university students: N = 308 at baseline (mean age = 23.75 years, SD = 5.15); follow-ups at three, six, and nine months; 114 completed all follow-ups, 58 completed two, and 40 completed one.
- Measures: Smartphone Application-Based Addiction Scale (SABAS) for generalized problematic smartphone/internet use, Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale (BSMAS) for specific problematic use, and Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) for psychological distress.
- Analysis: latent growth modeling (LGM) within structural equation modeling, adjusting for age and gender; full information maximum likelihood (FIML) for missing data; four models tested problematic use → distress and distress → problematic use.
Limitations
- The paper states: no data on when participants began using social media/smartphones; mental illness was self-reported and not confirmed by psychiatric interview or records; convenience sampling of university students, mostly from one university, limits generalizability; missing data appeared not to be missing at random, with completers differing from non-completers in age and hours of smartphone/social media use; Hong Kong-specific findings may not generalize; impactful life events between assessments were not collected; all data were self-reported and subject to recall and social desirability biases; only one specific form of problematic use (social media) was assessed.
- Evident in the text: attrition was substantial (114 of 308 completed all follow-ups), and the reverse-direction LGM models had fit problems, including a Heywood case and an RMSEA confidence interval exceeding the acceptable cutoff in one model.
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Claims the paper makes
0 of 34 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The growth of generalized problematic use was significantly associated with the growth of psychological distress (β = 0.51; P < 0.01).”
§ Comparing generalized and specific problematic smartphone/internet use: Longitudinal relationships between smartphone application-based addiction and social media addiction and psychological distress > Abstract > Results
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: Missing data in SABAS, BSMAS, and HADS scores were missing at random.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Table 3 demonstrates the significant correlations between the SABAS score, BSMAS score, and HADS score in the four assessed time points (r = 0.174 to 0.854; p-values < 0.01).”
§ Comparing generalized and specific problematic smartphone/internet use: Longitudinal relationships between smartphone application-based addiction and social media addiction and psychological distress > Results
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: Missing data in SABAS, BSMAS, and HADS scores were missing at random.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Moreover, the intercept of specific problematic use was significantly associated with the intercept of psychological distress (β = 0.28; P < 0.01)”
§ Comparing generalized and specific problematic smartphone/internet use: Longitudinal relationships between smartphone application-based addiction and social media addiction and psychological distress > Abstract > Results
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: Missing data in SABAS, BSMAS, and HADS scores were missing at random.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The LGM suggested that the intercept of generalized problematic use was significantly associated with the intercept of psychological distress (standardized coefficient [β] = 0.32; P < 0.01).”
§ Comparing generalized and specific problematic smartphone/internet use: Longitudinal relationships between smartphone application-based addiction and social media addiction and psychological distress > Abstract > Results
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: Missing data in SABAS, BSMAS, and HADS scores were missing at random.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and the growth of psychological distress (β = 0.37; P < 0.01).”
§ Comparing generalized and specific problematic smartphone/internet use: Longitudinal relationships between smartphone application-based addiction and social media addiction and psychological distress > Abstract > Results
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: Missing data in SABAS, BSMAS, and HADS scores were missing at random.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This association was not shown in specific problematic use of social media.”
- Also stated in: § Conclusions · plain
“the growth of the problematic use in social media did not show the same relationship”
§ Comparing generalized and specific problematic smartphone/internet use: Longitudinal relationships between smartphone application-based addiction and social media addiction and psychological distress > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Also stated in: § Conclusions · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the intercept of problematic use was significantly associated with the intercept of psychological distress (standardized coefficient = 0.32; p < 0.01)”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
“baseline generalized problematic smartphone/internet use was positively associated with baseline psychological distress”
§ Comparing generalized and specific problematic smartphone/internet use: Longitudinal relationships between smartphone application-based addiction and social media addiction and psychological distress > Results
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the growth of generalized problematic smartphone/internet use showed a greater impact than that of the specific problematic social media use on psychological distress.”
§ Comparing generalized and specific problematic smartphone/internet use: Longitudinal relationships between smartphone application-based addiction and social media addiction and psychological distress > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the initial level of specific problematic use in social media was associated with the growth of psychological distress, while this association was not found with generalized problematic smartphone/internet use.”
- Also stated in: § Conclusions · plain
“the initial level of generalized problematic use only increased the initial level of psychological distress”
§ Comparing generalized and specific problematic smartphone/internet use: Longitudinal relationships between smartphone application-based addiction and social media addiction and psychological distress > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Also stated in: § Conclusions · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the intercept of problematic use was significantly associated with the intercept of psychological distress (standardized coefficient = 0.28; p < 0.01) and the growth of psychological distress (standardized coefficient = 0.37; p < 0.01)”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
“the initial level of the problematic use of social media was positively associated with both the initial level and the growth of psychological distress”
§ Comparing generalized and specific problematic smartphone/internet use: Longitudinal relationships between smartphone application-based addiction and social media addiction and psychological distress > Results
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
- Probably not a substantial claim. 21
- It may state two separate claims as one. 12
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The participants who completed all the follow-ups comprised fewer males (21.1%) than those who only participated at baseline (41.7%).”
§ Comparing generalized and specific problematic smartphone/internet use: Longitudinal relationships between smartphone application-based addiction and social media addiction and psychological distress > Results
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Such problematic smartphone/internet use has been associated with several comorbid disorders including attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (Karaka, Canan, Saleh, & Potenza, 2017), depression (Sariyska, Reuter, Lachmann, & Montag, 2015) and substance abuse (Rücker, Akre, Berchtold, & Suris, 2015).”
§ Comparing generalized and specific problematic smartphone/internet use: Longitudinal relationships between smartphone application-based addiction and social media addiction and psychological distress > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Karaka, Canan, Saleh, & Potenza, 2017
- Not checked yetcites Sariyska, Reuter, Lachmann, & Montag, 2015
- Not checked yetcites Rücker, Akre, Berchtold, & Suris, 2015
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Therefore, the present study takes the similar view to Chen et al. (2020) that applications on smartphones can be a source of problematic behavior among a minority of individuals.”
§ Comparing generalized and specific problematic smartphone/internet use: Longitudinal relationships between smartphone application-based addiction and social media addiction and psychological distress > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Chen et al. (2020)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Additionally, the psychometric properties of the BSMAS have been established using English (Andreassen et al., 2016), Italian (Monacis et al., 2017), Persian (Lin, Broström, Nilsen, Griffiths, & Pakpour, 2017), Portuguese (Pontes, Andreassen, & Griffiths, 2016), Taiwanese (Chen et al., 2020; Leung et al., 2019), and Hong Kong versions (Yam et al., 2019).”
§ Comparing generalized and specific problematic smartphone/internet use: Longitudinal relationships between smartphone application-based addiction and social media addiction and psychological distress > Methods > Instruments
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Andreassen et al., 2016
- Not checked yetcites Monacis et al., 2017
- Not checked yetcites Lin, Broström, Nilsen, Griffiths, & Pakpour, 2017; Pontes, Andreassen, & Griffiths, 2016; Chen et al., 2020; Leung et al., 2019; Yam et al., 2019
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Following this process, 308 Hong Kong students completed the baseline assessment; 114 Hong Kong students completed all the follow-up assessments; 58 completed two follow-ups; and 40 completed one follow-up.”
§ Comparing generalized and specific problematic smartphone/internet use: Longitudinal relationships between smartphone application-based addiction and social media addiction and psychological distress > Methods > Participants and procedure
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 308Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“However, smartphone addiction may be generalized because of the many different activities that can be engaged in using smartphones (e.g., gambling, gaming, social networking, and working) (Kuss & Griffiths, 2017).”
§ Comparing generalized and specific problematic smartphone/internet use: Longitudinal relationships between smartphone application-based addiction and social media addiction and psychological distress > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kuss & Griffiths, 2017
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The participants who completed all follow-ups were younger (22.39 years) and spent less time on smartphones (4.10 hours/day) and social media (2.26 hours/day) than those who only participated at baseline (mean age = 25.19 years; time on smartphone = 5.90 hours/day; time on social media = 3.59 hours/day).”
§ Comparing generalized and specific problematic smartphone/internet use: Longitudinal relationships between smartphone application-based addiction and social media addiction and psychological distress > Results
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Two different forms of problematic use of digital technologies have been proposed: generalized internet addictions and specific internet addictions (i.e., generalized problematic smartphone/internet use and specific problematic smartphone/internet use) (Brand, Young, & Laier, 2014; Davis, 2001; Griffiths, 1998, 2000; Montag et al., 2015).”
§ Comparing generalized and specific problematic smartphone/internet use: Longitudinal relationships between smartphone application-based addiction and social media addiction and psychological distress > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Brand, Young, & Laier, 2014
- Not checked yetcites Davis, 2001
- Not checked yetcites Griffiths, 1998, 2000; Montag et al., 2015
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“The construct validity of the HADS has been confirmed in Hong Kong adolescents (Chan, Leung, Fong, Leung, & Lee, 2010) with acceptable Cronbach's alphas (0.79 for anxiety and 0.67 for depression).”
§ Comparing generalized and specific problematic smartphone/internet use: Longitudinal relationships between smartphone application-based addiction and social media addiction and psychological distress > Methods > Instruments
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Chan, Leung, Fong, Leung, & Lee, 2010
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The psychometric properties of the SABAS have been established using English (Csibi et al., 2018), Hungarian (Csibi et al., 2016), Persian (Lin et al., 2018), Taiwanese (Chen et al., 2020; Leung et al., 2019), and Hong Kong versions (Yam et al., 2019).”
§ Comparing generalized and specific problematic smartphone/internet use: Longitudinal relationships between smartphone application-based addiction and social media addiction and psychological distress > Methods > Instruments
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Csibi et al., 2018
- Not checked yetcites Csibi et al., 2016
- Not checked yetcites Lin et al., 2018; Chen et al., 2020; Leung et al., 2019; Yam et al., 2019
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Although prior research suggests a relationship between different types of problematic smartphone/internet use and poor mental health (Pontes et al., 2015; Rücker et al. 2015)”
§ Comparing generalized and specific problematic smartphone/internet use: Longitudinal relationships between smartphone application-based addiction and social media addiction and psychological distress > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Pontes et al., 2015
- Not checked yetcites Rücker et al. 2015
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Despite such polarized views, strong relationships exist between smartphone addiction and social media addiction, most likely because social media use is primarily engaged in via smartphones (Kuss & Griffiths, 2017; Sha, Sariyska, Riedl, Lachmann & Montag, 2019).”
§ Comparing generalized and specific problematic smartphone/internet use: Longitudinal relationships between smartphone application-based addiction and social media addiction and psychological distress > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kuss & Griffiths, 2017
- Not checked yetcites Sha, Sariyska, Riedl, Lachmann & Montag, 2019
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The internal consistency of the HADS was acceptable across all the assessments in the present study: α = 0.85 and ω = 0.85 at baseline; α = 0.84 and ω = 0.84 at first follow-up; α = 0.85 and ω = 0.85 at second follow-up; α = 0.85 and ω = 0.85 at third follow-up.”
§ Comparing generalized and specific problematic smartphone/internet use: Longitudinal relationships between smartphone application-based addiction and social media addiction and psychological distress > Methods > Instruments
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“data on when participants began using social media or smartphones were not collected.”
§ Comparing generalized and specific problematic smartphone/internet use: Longitudinal relationships between smartphone application-based addiction and social media addiction and psychological distress > Discussion > Limitations
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“However, the magnitude of the association was of note (0.37, a moderate effect size; Cohen, 1988).”
§ Comparing generalized and specific problematic smartphone/internet use: Longitudinal relationships between smartphone application-based addiction and social media addiction and psychological distress > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Cohen, 1988
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe quote only partly states this claim.
In the paper
“Griffiths (2000, 2005) has proposed salience, mood, modification, tolerance, withdrawal conflict, and relapse as the six main criteria for addiction and these have been modeled to assess generalized or specific problematic smartphone/internet use.”
§ Comparing generalized and specific problematic smartphone/internet use: Longitudinal relationships between smartphone application-based addiction and social media addiction and psychological distress > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Griffiths (2000, 2005)
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The present study's findings echo the current evidence concerning the associations between problematic smartphone/internet use and mental health (Bányai et al., 2017; Csibi et al., 2018; Monacis et al., 2017; Sha et al., 2019).”
§ Comparing generalized and specific problematic smartphone/internet use: Longitudinal relationships between smartphone application-based addiction and social media addiction and psychological distress > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Bányai et al., 2017
- Not checked yetcites Csibi et al., 2018
- Not checked yetcites Monacis et al., 2017
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The fit index of RMSEA (0.083–0.092) was close to the suggested cutoff. However, its 90% CI covers acceptable cutoff scores and does not exceed the worst value for RMSEA (i.e., 0.10), except for the fourth model (Fig. 2b; 90% CI of RSMEA = 0.110).”
§ Comparing generalized and specific problematic smartphone/internet use: Longitudinal relationships between smartphone application-based addiction and social media addiction and psychological distress > Results
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“only one type of specific smartphone/internet problematic use (i.e., social media use) was assessed.”
§ Comparing generalized and specific problematic smartphone/internet use: Longitudinal relationships between smartphone application-based addiction and social media addiction and psychological distress > Discussion > Limitations
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“This finding supports those scholars who distinguish generalized problematic smartphone/internet use from specific problematic use (Brand et al., 2014; Davis, 2001; Griffiths, 1998, 2000; Montag et al., 2015).”
§ Comparing generalized and specific problematic smartphone/internet use: Longitudinal relationships between smartphone application-based addiction and social media addiction and psychological distress > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Brand et al., 2014
- Not checked yetcites Davis, 2001
- Not checked yetcites Griffiths, 1998, 2000
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“although missing data in the present study appeared not to be missing at random, significant differences were found between those completing the survey only once, those completing twice, those completing three times, and those completing all four assessments in age, hours spent on using smartphone per day, and hours spent on using social media per day.”
§ Comparing generalized and specific problematic smartphone/internet use: Longitudinal relationships between smartphone application-based addiction and social media addiction and psychological distress > Discussion > Limitations
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“the results of the present study provided insights into the debate concerning whether problematic smartphone/internet use should be considered as an independent diagnosis or a negative consequence of other disorders (Pies, 2009).”
§ Comparing generalized and specific problematic smartphone/internet use: Longitudinal relationships between smartphone application-based addiction and social media addiction and psychological distress > Discussion > Practical and clinical implications
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Pies, 2009
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Generalized problematic smartphone/internet use has been associated with other dysfunctions including impaired family functioning, lowered life satisfaction, problematic family interaction, poor emotional wellbeing, and decreased academic performance (Rücker et al. 2015; Wartberg, Kriston, Kammerl, Petersen, & Thomasius, 2015).”
§ Comparing generalized and specific problematic smartphone/internet use: Longitudinal relationships between smartphone application-based addiction and social media addiction and psychological distress > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Rücker et al. 2015
- Not checked yetcites Wartberg, Kriston, Kammerl, Petersen, & Thomasius, 2015
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“all data were self-reported using Google Forms and are subject to biases including memory recall and social desirability.”
§ Comparing generalized and specific problematic smartphone/internet use: Longitudinal relationships between smartphone application-based addiction and social media addiction and psychological distress > Discussion > Limitations
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Moreover, there is a Heywood case in the third model (Fig. 2a; a standardized coefficient is larger than 1).”
§ Comparing generalized and specific problematic smartphone/internet use: Longitudinal relationships between smartphone application-based addiction and social media addiction and psychological distress > Results
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“only university students (with the majority from one university) were recruited using convenience sampling.”
§ Comparing generalized and specific problematic smartphone/internet use: Longitudinal relationships between smartphone application-based addiction and social media addiction and psychological distress > Discussion > Limitations
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“although participants who self-reported having any mental illness were excluded, such diagnoses were not confirmed by formal psychiatric interviews or data from medical records.”
§ Comparing generalized and specific problematic smartphone/internet use: Longitudinal relationships between smartphone application-based addiction and social media addiction and psychological distress > Discussion > Limitations
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The present study corroborates and extends prior findings (Bányai et al., 2017; Csibi et al., 2018; Monacis et al., 2017; Sha et al., 2019) that problematic smartphone/internet use is associated with (and may further impact) psychological distress among individuals with problematic smartphone/internet use.”
§ Comparing generalized and specific problematic smartphone/internet use: Longitudinal relationships between smartphone application-based addiction and social media addiction and psychological distress > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Bányai et al., 2017
- Not checked yetcites Csibi et al., 2018
- Not checked yetcites Monacis et al., 2017
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“data were collected from Hong Kong and the extent to which the findings generalize to other populations also warrants further investigation.”
§ Comparing generalized and specific problematic smartphone/internet use: Longitudinal relationships between smartphone application-based addiction and social media addiction and psychological distress > Discussion > Limitations
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
Rarely has research used a longitudinal design to examine relationships between problematic smartphone/internet use and poor mental health in an East-Asian context.
“rarely has research used a longitudinal design to examine such relationships in an East-Asian context.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The direction between problematic use and psychological distress is still a matter of debate in the literature.
“given that the direction between problematic use and psychological distress is still a matter of debate in the literature”
The paper relies on this without support.
Missing data in SABAS, BSMAS, and HADS scores were missing at random.
“A full information maximum likelihood (FIML) method was used to impute missing data in SABAS, BSMAS, and HADS scores for all the participants.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The convenience sample of Hong Kong university students is representative of university students in general.
“Convenience sampling was used and 400 students were invited to participate (response rate = 77%).”
The paper relies on this without support.
The association between problematic use and psychological distress is not confounded by unmeasured variables.
“two models were constructed adjusting for age and gender.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“This suggests that initial levels of issue-specific use in social media are associated with increased psychological distress (57).”
From Effects of Short Video Addiction on the Motivation and Well-Being of Chinese Vocational College Students (2022) · cites this paper as [57]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Female proportion is reported as the male proportion
MinorThe results say 32.5% of participants were female, but Table 1 identifies 100 of 308 participants (32.5%) as male.
“Slightly less than one-third of participants were female (32.5%)”
“| Gender (Male) | 100 (32.5%) | 24 (21.1%) | 17 (29.3%) | 19 (47.5%) | 40 (41.7%) |”
Citations
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“Rapid improvements in internet and smartphone technologies have been accompanied by substantial growth in the use of internet-based applications and platforms (Cheng & Li, 2014; Kuss & Griffiths, 2012; Kuss, Griffiths, Karila, & Billieus, 2014; Ryan, Chester, Reece, & Xenos, 2014).”
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BackgroundResultInternet addiction and sleep problems: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Alimoradi, Z., Lin, C., Broström, A., Bülow, P. H., Bajalan, Z., Griffiths, M. D., Ohayon, M. M., & Pakpour, A. H. (2019) · Sleep Medicine Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2019.06.004 · Cited by 559 · cited 1×
“…of health problems generated from overuse of internet and smartphone technologies includes musculoskeletal discomfort, poor sleep quality, daytime sleepiness, and depressed mood states (Alimoradi et al., 2019; Ikeda & Nakamura, 2014; Nathan & Zeitzer, 2013; Yang, Chen, Huang, Lin, & Chang, 2017).”
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“The present study corroborates and extends prior findings (B anyai et al., 2017; Csibi et al., 2018; Monacis et al., 2017; Sha et al., 2019) that problematic smartphone/internet use is associated with (and may further impact) psychological distress among individuals with problematic…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationOnline gaming addiction in children and adolescents: A review of empirical research
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Self-citationInternet Addiction : Does It Really Exist?
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“Specific problematic smartphone/internet use (Brand et al., 2014; Davis, 2001; Griffiths, 1998, 2000; Montag et al., 2015) indicates problematic engagement in a particular type of smartphone/internet activity (e.g., social-media use, gaming, gambling) and shares similar features to generalized…”
BackgroundResultLeung, H., Pakpour, A. H., Strong, C., Lin, Y.-C., Tsai, M.-C., Griffiths, M. D., Lin, C.-Y., & Chen, I.-H. (2020) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2019.04.027 · Cited by 290 · cited 2×
“…been established using English (Andreassen et al., 2016), Italian (Monacis et al., 2017), Persian (Lin, Brostr€om, Nilsen, Griffiths, & Pakpour, 2017), Portuguese (Pontes, Andreassen, & Griffiths, 2016), Taiwanese (Chen et al., 2020; Leung et al., 2019), and Hong Kong versions (Yam et al., 2019).”
MethodSelf-citationThe Psychometric Properties of the Smartphone Application-Based Addiction Scale (SABAS)
Csibi, S., Griffiths, M. D., Cook, B. J., Demetrovics, Z., & Szabó, A. (2017) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-017-9787-2 · Cited by 268 · cited 5×
“The present study corroborates and extends prior findings (B anyai et al., 2017; Csibi et al., 2018; Monacis et al., 2017; Sha et al., 2019) that problematic smartphone/internet use is associated with (and may further impact) psychological distress among individuals with problematic…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationShould DSM-V Designate "Internet Addiction" a Mental Disorder?
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Griffiths, M. D., Pontes, H. M., & Kuss, D. J. (2015) · Neuroscience and Neuroeconomics · doi:10.2147/nan.s60982 · Cited by 249 · cited 1×
“Although prior research suggests a relationship between different types of problematic smartphone/internet use and poor mental health (Pontes et al., 2015; R€ucker et al. 2015), rarely has research used a longitudinal design to examine such relationships in an East-Asian context.”
BackgroundSelf-citationSha, P., Sariyska, R., Riedl, R., Lachmann, B., & Montag, C. (2018) · Addictive Behaviors Reports · doi:10.1016/j.abrep.2018.100148 · Cited by 245 · cited 3×
“The present study corroborates and extends prior findings (B anyai et al., 2017; Csibi et al., 2018; Monacis et al., 2017; Sha et al., 2019) that problematic smartphone/internet use is associated with (and may further impact) psychological distress among individuals with problematic…”
BackgroundResultLin, C.-Y., Broström, A., Nilsen, P., Griffiths, M. D., & Pakpour, A. H. (2017) · Journal of Behavioral Addictions · doi:10.1556/2006.6.2017.071 · Cited by 236
Self-citationA comparison of geometric- and regression-based mobile gaze-tracking
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“Therefore, the present study takes the similar view to Chen et al. (2020) that applications on smartphones can be a source of problematic behavior among a minority of individuals.”
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“…for those seriously affected, psychological interventions (cognitive-behavioral therapy, motivational interviewing, and mindfulness interventions; Young, 2013) in the treatment of behavioral disorders (e.g., problematic smartphone/internet use) may be useful in helping overcome psychological…”
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“…been established using English (Andreassen et al., 2016), Italian (Monacis et al., 2017), Persian (Lin, Brostr€om, Nilsen, Griffiths, & Pakpour, 2017), Portuguese (Pontes, Andreassen, & Griffiths, 2016), Taiwanese (Chen et al., 2020; Leung et al., 2019), and Hong Kong versions (Yam et al., 2019).”
MethodSelf-citationAssociation Between Smartphone Use and Musculoskeletal Discomfort in Adolescent Students
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Problematic Internet use is associated with substance use in young adolescents
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Portuguese validation of the Bergen Facebook Addiction Scale: an empirical study
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Ikeda, K., & Nakamura, K. (2013) · Environmental Health and Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1007/s12199-013-0373-3 · Cited by 75 · cited 1×
“…of health problems generated from overuse of internet and smartphone technologies includes musculoskeletal discomfort, poor sleep quality, daytime sleepiness, and depressed mood states (Alimoradi et al., 2019; Ikeda & Nakamura, 2014; Nathan & Zeitzer, 2013; Yang, Chen, Huang, Lin, & Chang, 2017).”
BackgroundKaraca, S., Saleh, A., Canan, F., & Potenza, M. N. (2016) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-016-9660-8 · Cited by 75
Self-citationSmartphone Application-Based Addiction Among Iranian Adolescents: A Psychometric Study
Lin, C., Imani, V., Broström, A., Nilsén, P., Fung, X. C. C., Griffiths, M. D., & Pakpour, A. H. (2018) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-018-0026-2 · Cited by 73 · cited 2×
“The psychometric properties of the SABAS have been established using English (Csibi et al., 2018), Hungarian (Csibi et al., 2016), Persian (Lin et al., 2018), Taiwanese (Chen et al., 2020; Leung et al., 2019), and Hong Kong versions (Yam et al., 2019).”
MethodSelf-citationM, S. R. R. (2015) · Journal of Addiction Research & Therapy · doi:10.4172/2155-6105.1000209 · Cited by 71
Nathan, N. A., & Zeitzer, J. M. (2013) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/1471-2458-13-840 · Cited by 52 · cited 1×
“…of health problems generated from overuse of internet and smartphone technologies includes musculoskeletal discomfort, poor sleep quality, daytime sleepiness, and depressed mood states (Alimoradi et al., 2019; Ikeda & Nakamura, 2014; Nathan & Zeitzer, 2013; Yang, Chen, Huang, Lin, & Chang, 2017).”
BackgroundPakpour, A. H., Chen, C., Lin, C., Strong, C., Tsai, M., & Lin, Y.-C. (2018) · International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.ijchp.2018.06.002 · Cited by 48 · cited 1×
“The following indices were used to examine whether the LGM model was robust and supported: comparative fit index (CFI) >0.9, root mean square of approximation (RMSEA) <0.1, and SRMR (standardized root mean square residual) <0.08 (Browne & Cudeck, 1993; Lin, 2018; Pakpour et al., 2019).”
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Self-citation
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Fineberg, N. A., Menchón, J. M., Hall, N., Dell’Osso, B. M., Brand, M., Potenza, M. N., Chamberlain, S. R., Cirnigliaro, G., Löchner, C., Billieux, J., et al. (2022) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2022.152346 · Cited by 276
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Lopes, L. S., Valentini, J. P., Monteiro, T. H., Costacurta, M. C. D. F., Soares, L. O. N., Telfar-Barnard, L., & Nunes, P. V. (2022) · Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2021.0300 · Cited by 197
Metadata
- Authors
- Chen, I.-H., Pakpour, A. H., Leung, H., Potenza, M. N., Su, J.-A., Lin, C.-Y., & Griffiths, M. D.
- Affiliations
- Minnan Normal University (CN)
- Qazvin University of Medical Sciences (IR)
- City University of Hong Kong (HK)
- Yale University (US)
- Chang Gung University (TW)
- Hong Kong Polytechnic University (HK)
- Nottingham Trent University (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Lin, Chung-Ying
- Venue
- Journal of Behavioral Addictions
- Publisher
- Akademiai Kiado Zrt.
- Published
- 2020-06
- Volume
- 9
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 410-419
- ISSN
- 2062-5871 (ISSN-L)
- 2063-5303
- PMC
- PMC8939406
- OpenAlex
- W3037865145
- Semantic Scholar
- 3d02484d45e179e134ee5e60f61ca2b7f9318e93
- Cited by
- 213
- References
- 47
- Citations by year
- 2026: 23 · 2025: 38 · 2024: 35 · 2023: 33 · 2022: 47 · 2021: 32 · 2020: 5
- FWCI
- 39.10
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Behavioral Addictions (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Nottingham Trent University's Institutional Repository (Nottingham Trent Repository) (acceptedVersion)
- Repository of the Academy's Library (Library of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences) (acceptedVersion)
- CityU Scholars (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PolyU Institutional Research Archive (Hong Kong Polytechnic University) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- Funders
- Hong Kong Polytechnic University
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Sexuality, Behavior, and Technology
- Social Sciences › Education › Child Development and Digital Technology
- Keywords
- smartphone addiction, problematic internet use, social media addiction, psychological distress, anxiety, depression, university students, young adults, longitudinal associations
- MeSH terms
- Smartphone, Psychological Distress, Internet Addiction Disorder, Adolescent, Adult, Anxiety, Depression, Female, Hong Kong, Humans, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Stress, Psychological, Students, Universities, Young Adult, Social Media
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-10, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-10 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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