Measurement invariance across young adults from Hong Kong and Taiwan among three internet-related addiction scales: Bergen social media addiction scale (BSMAS), smartphone application-based addiction scale (SABAS), and internet gaming disorder scale-short form (IGDS-SF9) (study Part A)

Leung, Hildie; Pakpour, Amir H.; Strong, Carol; Lin, Yi-Ching; Tsai, Meng-Che; Griffiths, Mark D.; Lin, Chung-Ying; Chen, I-Hua

doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2019.04.027

Cited by 290Impact of Technology on AdolescentsPsychometric Methodologies and TestingGambling Behavior and Treatments

Measurement invariance across young adults from Hong Kong and Taiwan among three internet-related addiction scales: Bergen social media addiction scale (BSMAS), smartphone application-based addiction scale (SABAS), and internet gaming disorder scale-short form (IGDS-SF9) (study Part A)

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Leung, Hildie, Pakpour, Amir H., Strong, Carol, Lin, Yi-Ching, Tsai, Meng-Che, Griffiths, Mark D., Lin, Chung-Ying, Chen, I-Hua·2020·Addictive Behaviors

DOI 10.1016/j.addbeh.2019.04.027

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Abstract

Internet addiction has been found to be prevalent worldwide, including Asian countries, and related to several negative outcomes and other behavioral addictions. The Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale (BSMAS), Smartphone Application-Based Addiction Scale (SABAS), and nine-item Internet Gaming Disorder Scale-Short Form (IGDS-SF9) have been extensively used to assess internet-related addictions. However, the three aforementioned instruments have rarely been used in Asian countries. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether the BSMAS, SABAS, and IGDS-SF9 were appropriate for use in heterogeneous subsamples from Hong Kong and Taiwan. University students from Hong Kong (n = 306) and Taiwan (n = 336) were recruited via an online survey. Multigroup confirmatory factor analysis (MGCFA) was used to assess measurement invariance of the BSMAS, SABAS, and IGDS-SF9 across the two subcultures. The original unidimensional structures of BSMAS, SABAS and IGDS-SF9 were confirmed through confirmatory factorial analysis in both subcultures. The MGCFA results showed that the unidimensional structures of the BSMAS and IGDS-SF9 were invariant across the two Chinese cultural areas (Hong Kong and Taiwan). However, the measurement invariance of the SABAS was established after some model modifications. In conclusion, the present study found that the Chinese BSMAS, SABAS, and IGDS-SF9 were all adequate instruments to validly assess internet-related addictions among university students. The three brief instruments used for assessing addictions to social media, smartphone applications, and online gaming are valid and psychometrically robust across two Chinese subcultures and can be used by healthcare professionals in these regions.

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BackgroundResultInfluentialSelf-citation
Internet-Related Behaviors and Psychological Distress Among Schoolchildren During COVID-19 School Suspension
Chen, I.-H., Chen, C.-Y., Pakpour, A. H., Griffiths, M. D., & Lin, C.-Y. (2020) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2020.06.007 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
“The associations between psychological distress and different types of problematic Internet-related behaviors found in the present study concur with prior research.(5,6,9,10) Special attention should be paid to the greater associations between problematic smartphoneapplication use, problematic social media use, and ps…”
ResultSelf-citation
Escalating progression of mental health disorders during the COVID-19 pandemic: Evidence from a nationwide survey
Wong, L. P., Alias, H., Fuzi, A. A. M., Omar, I. S., Nor, A. M., Tan, M. P., Baranovich, D.-L., Sa’ari, C. Z., Hamzah, S. H., Wing, C. K., et al. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0248916 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
The Effects of Internet Gaming and Social Media Use On Physical Activity, Sleep, Quality of Life, and Academic Performance among University Students in Hong Kong
Kwok, C., Leung, P. Y., Poon, K.-C., & Fung, X. C. C. (2021) · Asian Journal of Social Health and Behavior · doi:10.4103/shb.shb_81_20 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
Clarification of the Cut-off Score for Nine-Item Internet Gaming Disorder Scale–Short Form (IGDS9-SF) in a Chinese Context
Qin, L., Cheng, L., Hu, M., Liu, Q., Tong, J., Hao, W., Luo, T., & Liao, Y. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00470 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Problematic Internet use (PIU) in youth: a brief literature review of selected topics
Ruckwongpatr, K., Paratthakonkun, C., Ghavifekr, S., Gan, W. Y., Tung, S. E. H., Nurmala, I., Nadhiroh, S. R., Pramukti, I., & Lin, C. (2022) · Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2022.101150 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Self-citation
Health anxiety related to problematic smartphone use and gaming disorder severity during COVID ‐19: Fear of missing out as a mediator
Elhai, J. D., McKay, D., Yang, H., Minaya, C., Montag, C., & Asmundson, G. J. G. (2020) · Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies · doi:10.1002/hbe2.227 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
“Recent work suggests overlap between PSU and (Internet) GD (Leung et al., 2020).”
Background
Social media use in China before and during COVID-19: Preliminary results from an online retrospective survey
Luo, T., Chen, W., & Liao, Y. (2021) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2021.05.057 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Internet-related behaviors and psychological distress among schoolchildren during the COVID-19 school hiatus
Chen, C.-Y., Chen, I.-H., Pakpour, A. H., Lin, C.-Y., & Griffiths, M. D. (2021) · Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2020.0497 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Self-citation
Psychometric Properties of Three Simplified Chinese Online-Related Addictive Behavior Instruments Among Mainland Chinese Primary School Students
Chen, I., Ahorsu, D. K., Pakpour, A. H., Griffiths, M. D., Lin, C., & Chen, C. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00875 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Self-citation
Addictive social media use during Covid-19 outbreak: Validation of the Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale (BSMAS) and investigation of protective factors in nine countries
Brailovskaia, J., & Margraf, J. (2024) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-022-03182-z · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Internet addiction and psychological distress among Chinese schoolchildren before and during the COVID-19 outbreak: A latent class analysis
Chen, I., Chen, C., Liu, C., Ahorsu, D. K., Griffiths, M. D., Chen, Y., Kuo, Y., Lin, C., Pakpour, A. H., & Wang, S. (2021) · Journal of Behavioral Addictions · doi:10.1556/2006.2021.00052 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
“…versions of BSMAS demonstrated strong psychometric properties (e.g., B anyai et al., 2017; Chen, Ahorsu, et al., 2020; Chen, Strong, et al., 2020; Leung et al., 2020; Lin, Brostr€om, Nilsen, Griffiths, & Pakpour, 2017; Monacis, de Palo, Griffiths, & Sinatra, 2017; Yam et al., 2019) and are…”
Self-citation
The Overlap Between Problematic Smartphone Use and Problematic Social Media Use: a Systematic Review
Marino, C., Canale, N., Melodia, F., Spada, M. M., & Vieno, A. (2021) · Current Addiction Reports · doi:10.1007/s40429-021-00398-0 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Reciprocal Relationships Between Problematic Social Media Use, Problematic Gaming, and Psychological Distress Among University Students: A 9-Month Longitudinal Study
Chang, C.-W., Huang, R., Strong, C., Lin, Y.-C., Tsai, M., Chen, I., Lin, C., Pakpour, A. H., & Griffiths, M. D. (2022) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2022.858482 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
“Furthermore, the measurement invariance of the BSMAS has been supported across Hong Kong and Taiwan university students (62).”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citation
Longitudinal relationships between nomophobia, addictive use of social media, and insomnia in adolescents
Lin, C.-Y., Potenza, M. N., Ulander, M., Broström, A., Ohayon, M. M., Chattu, V. K., & Pakpour, A. H. (2021) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare9091201 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
“Addictive use of social media has been considered as a type of specific internet addiction [18,19].”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Psychological distress and internet-related behaviors between schoolchildren with and without overweight during the COVID-19 outbreak
Chen, C.-Y., Chen, I.-H., O’Brien, K. S., Latner, J. D., & Lin, C.-Y. (2021) · International Journal of Obesity · doi:10.1038/s41366-021-00741-5 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Self-citation
Risk Factors Associated With Social Media Addiction: An Exploratory Study
Zhao, J., Jia, T., Wang, X., Xiao, Y., & Wu, X. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.837766 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Has the prevalence of problematic social media use increased over the past seven years and since the start of the COVID-19 pandemic? A meta-analysis of the studies published since the development of the Bergen social media addiction scale
Casale, S., Akbari, M., Seydavi, M., Benucci, S. B., & Fioravanti, G. (2023) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2023.107838 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Mediated roles of generalized trust and perceived social support in the effects of problematic social media use on mental health: A cross‐sectional study
Lin, C., Namdar, P., Griffiths, M. D., & Pakpour, A. H. (2020) · Health Expectations · doi:10.1111/hex.13169 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Self-citation
Hedonic use, stress, and life satisfaction as predictors of smartphone addiction
Vujić, A., & Szabó, A. (2022) · Addictive Behaviors Reports · doi:10.1016/j.abrep.2022.100411 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
“The SABAS has been validated in several languages, including Hungarian (Csibi et al., 2016), English (Csibi et al., 2018), and Chinese, 2020 (Leung et al., 2020; Yam et al., 2019).”
Method
Is it meaningful to distinguish between Facebook addiction and social networking sites addiction? Psychometric analysis of Facebook addiction and social networking sites addiction scales
Balcerowska, J. M., Bereznowski, P., Biernatowska, A., Atroszko, P. A., Pallesen, S., & Andreassen, C. S. (2022) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-020-00625-3 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
“The scale has shown measurement invariance across two Chinese cultural areas (Leung et al. 2020), as well as time invariance (Chen et al.”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Problematic use of internet-related activities and perceived weight stigma in schoolchildren: a longitudinal study across different epidemic periods of COVID-19 in China
Fung, X. C. C., Siu, A. M. H., Potenza, M. N., O'Brien, K. S., Latner, J. D., Chen, C.-Y., Chen, I.-H., & Lin, C.-Y. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.675839 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Self-citation
Parent–child relationship and smartphone use disorder among Chinese adolescents: The mediating role of quality of life and the moderating role of educational level
Gao, Q., Sun, R., Fu, E., Jia, G., & Xiang, Y. (2019) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2019.106065 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
The relationship between smartphone use and students` academic performance
Sapci, O., Elhai, J. D., Amialchuk, A., & Montag, C. (2021) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2021.102035 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
“In addition, some studies that examined in-class test performance found the non-texting participants outperformed those who texted regardless of gender (Ellis et al., 2010; Froese et al., 2010; Leung et al., 2020; McDonald, 2013; Waite et al., 2018).”
The phubbing phenomenon: a cross-sectional study on the relationships among social media addiction, fear of missing out, personality traits, and phubbing behavior
Chi, L.-C., Tang, T.-C., & Tang, E. (2022) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-02468-y · Cited by 69 · see citing works
“, 2020) as well as measurement invariance from Hong Kong and Taiwan (Leung et al., 2020).”
BackgroundInfluential
Temporal associations between physical activity and three types of problematic use of the internet: A six-month longitudinal study
Huang, P., Chen, J., Potenza, M. N., Griffiths, M. D., Pakpour, A. H., Chen, J., Lin, Y.-C., Hung, C., O’Brien, K., & Lin, C. (2022) · Journal of Behavioral Addictions · doi:10.1556/2006.2022.00084 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Self-citation
Does Smartphone Addiction, Social Media Addiction, and/or Internet Game Addiction Affect Adolescents’ Interpersonal Interactions?
Yang, S., Wang, Y., Lee, Y., Lin, Y., Hsieh, P., & Lin, P. (2022) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare10050963 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
“The Chinese version of the IGDS9-SF was shown to be valid and reliable [19,32,37,40,41].”
MethodSelf-citation
Measurement Invariance of the Drivers of COVID-19 Vaccination Acceptance Scale: Comparison between Taiwanese and Mainland Chinese-Speaking Populations
Yeh, Y., Chen, I., Ahorsu, D. K., Ko, N., Chen, K., Li, P., Yen, C., Lin, C., Griffiths, M. D., & Pakpour, A. H. (2021) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines9030297 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“, Taiwanese and mainland Chinese); (ii) a factor-loading-constrained model, which constrained the factor loadings equally between the two subsamples and freely estimated the item intercepts across the two subsamples; and (iii) a factor-loading and item-intercept-constrained model, which constrained the factor loadings…”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Peer relationship increasing the risk of social media addiction among Chinese adolescents who have negative emotions
Huang, L., Zhang, J., Duan, W., & He, L. (2023) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-01997-w · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Boredom proneness and rumination mediate relationships between depression and anxiety with problematic smartphone use severity
Wang, Y., Yang, H., Montag, C., & Elhai, J. D. (2020) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-020-01052-0 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“…who are not dependent on bottles, but rather are dependent on alcohol (Panova and Carbonell 2018), in particular social media and (Freemium-) game apps might be among the key-apps resulting in smartphone overuse (Leung et al. 2020; Sha et al. 2019; Montag et al. 2019a, b; Elhai et al. 2020d).”
Background
Neuroimaging the effects of smartphone (over-)use on brain function and structure—a review on the current state of MRI-based findings and a roadmap for future research
Montag, C., & Becker, B. (2023) · Psychoradiology · doi:10.1093/psyrad/kkad001 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“Other drivers of excessive smartphone use might be video games on the phone (Leung et al. ,2020) and other functions such as unregulated access to work-related e-mails (Sadeghi et al. , 2022), which in turn might lower well-being (Kushlev& Dunn,2015).”
Background
Internet gaming disorder, psychological distress, and insomnia in adolescent students and their siblings: An actor-partner interdependence model approach
Lin, C., Potenza, M. N., Broström, A., & Pakpour, A. H. (2020) · Addictive Behaviors Reports · doi:10.1016/j.abrep.2020.100332 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“The psychometric properties of the IGDS-SF9 are sound (Chen, Strong, et al., 2020; Leung et al., 2020; Pontes et al., 2017), including the Persian version (Wu et al.”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citation
The effects of personality and social media experiences on mental health: Examining the mediating role of fear of missing out, ghosting, and vaguebooking
Astleitner, H., Bains, A., & Hörmann, S. (2022) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2022.107436 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Translation and psychometric evaluation of Smartphone Addiction Scale—Short Version (SAS-SV) among Chinese college students
Zhao, H., Rafik-Galea, S., Fitriana, M., & Song, T. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0278092 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
The metacognitive-motivational links between stress and short-form video addiction
Sun, R., Zhang, M. X., Yeh, C., Ung, C. O. L., & Wu, A. M. S. (2024) · Technology in Society · doi:10.1016/j.techsoc.2024.102548 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Psychological Distress and Protective Behaviors During the COVID-19 Pandemic Among Different Populations: Hong Kong General Population, Taiwan Healthcare Workers, and Taiwan Outpatients
Chung, G. K.-K., Strong, C., Chan, Y.-H., Chung, R. Y., Chen, J., Lin, Y., Huang, R., Lin, C., & Ko, N. (2022) · Frontiers in Medicine · doi:10.3389/fmed.2022.800962 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Self-citation
Effects of Weight-Related Self-Stigma and Smartphone Addiction on Female University Students’ Physical Activity Levels
Saffari, M., Chen, J., Wu, H.-C., Fung, X. C. C., Chang, C., Chang, Y.-L., Ruckwongpatr, K., Potenza, M. N., Lin, I., & Lin, C. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19052631 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“The Chinese version of SABAS has demonstrated good psychometric properties [42,43].”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Applying network analysis to understand the relationships between impulsivity and social media addiction and between impulsivity and problematic smartphone use
Guo, Z., Liang, S., Ren, L., Yang, T., Qiu, R., He, Y., & Zhu, X. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.993328 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“Both SMA and PSU are sometimes collectively referred to as Internet-related addiction (17, 18).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
The Psychometric Properties of the DASS-21 and Its Association with Problematic Internet Use among Chinese College Freshmen
Cao, C.-H., Dang, C.-Y., Zheng, X., Chen, W.-G., Chen, I., & Gamble, J. H. (2023) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare11050700 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
“Previous studies have been conducted to assess the Chinese version among Hong Kong adults [63], Hong Kong university students [35], and mainland Chinese primary school students, all with acceptable psychometric properties [22].”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Are there gender differences in comorbidity symptoms networks of problematic social media use, anxiety and depression symptoms? Evidence from network analysis
Wang, Z., Yang, H., & Elhai, J. D. (2022) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2022.111705 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Psychometric Properties of the Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale in Korean Young Adults
Shin, N. Y. (2022) · Psychiatry Investigation · doi:10.30773/pi.2021.0294 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Associations Between Behavioral Addictions and Mental Health Concerns During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis
Alimoradi, Z., Broström, A., Potenza, M. N., Lin, C., & Pakpour, A. H. (2024) · Current Addiction Reports · doi:10.1007/s40429-024-00555-1 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Self-citation
Internet gaming as a coping method among schizophrenic patients facing psychological distress
Chang, Y.-H., Chang, K., Hou, W., Lin, C., & Griffiths, M. D. (2020) · Journal of Behavioral Addictions · doi:10.1556/2006.2020.00081 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
“This can result in educational and/or occupational impairment, relationship problems, daily dysfunction, and psychological distress (Alimoradi et al., 2019; Chen, Huang, Wu, Kuo, & Lin, 2019; Hawi, Samaha, & Griffiths, 2018; Leung et al., 2020; Strong, Lee, Chao, Lin, & Tsai, 2018).”
MethodInfluentialSelf-citation
Validation study of the Indonesian internet addiction test among adolescents
Siste, K., Suwartono, C., Nasrun, M. W. S., Bardosono, S., Sekartini, R., Pandelaki, J., Sarasvita, R., Murtani, B. J., Damayanti, R., & Wiguna, T. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0245833 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Network analysis of internet gaming disorder, problematic social media use, problematic smartphone use, psychological distress, and meaning in life among adolescents
Li, Y., Mu, W., Xie, X., & Kwok, S. Y. C. L. (2023) · Digital Health · doi:10.1177/20552076231158036 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“35 The Cronbach ’ s alpha was 0.87 in the current study.”
MethodInfluential
The unique role of smartphone addiction and related factors among university students: a model based on cross-sectional and cross-lagged network analyses
Liu, C. (2023) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-023-05384-6 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“In future research, the present author will select some scales that are popular internationally and also applicable in China, such as Smartphone Application Based Addition Scale (SABAS) [4, 6, 91, 92].”
Method
Validation of the Internet Gaming Disorder Symptoms Checklist Based on the Fifth Edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders in Chinese Adolescents
Yang, X., Jiang, X., Wu, A. M. S., Ma, L., Cai, Y., Wong, K. M., & Lau, J. T. F. (2021) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-021-01213-7 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Does childhood maltreatment increase the subsequent risk of problematic smartphone use among adolescents? A two-wave longitudinal study
Geng, J., Bao, L., Wang, H., Wang, J., Gao, T., & Lei, L. (2022) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2022.107250 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Psychological Pathway from Obesity-Related Stigma to Anxiety via Internalized Stigma and Self-Esteem among Adolescents in Taiwan
Lin, C., Tsai, M., Liu, C.-H., Lin, Y.-C., Hsieh, Y., & Strong, C. (2019) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph16224410 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“Taiwan and Hong Kong still needs to be examined [30].”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Social media use, psychological well-being and physical health during lockdown
Yue, Z., Lee, D. S., Xiao, J., & Zhang, R. (2021) · Information Communication & Society · doi:10.1080/1369118x.2021.2013917 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
“Scale has been widely used to capture excessive social media use and is validated in different contexts (Leung et al., 2020).”
Method
A longitudinal study of the effects of problematic smartphone use on social functioning among people with schizophrenia: Mediating roles for sleep quality and self-stigma
Chang, K., Chang, Y., Yen, C., Chen, J., Chen, P., Lin, C., Griffiths, M. D., Potenza, M. N., & Pakpour, A. H. (2022) · Journal of Behavioral Addictions · doi:10.1556/2006.2022.00012 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“The psychometric properties of the Chinese SABAS have been supported by satisfactory internal consistency (a5 0.78) and construct validity (comparative fit index5 0.980–1.000) (Chen, Strong, et al., 2020; Leung et al., 2020; Yam et al., 2019).”
MethodInfluentialSelf-citation
Measurement Invariance of the Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale Across Genders
Yue, H., Zhang, X., Cheng, X., Liu, B., & Bao, H. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.879259 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“has been reported in previous two studies (Leung et al., 2020; Huang et al., 2021), evidences yielded by the current research still indicated that the unidimensional factor structure of this scale was robust across genders.”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Translation and Validation of the Gaming Disorder Test and Gaming Disorder Scale for Adolescents into Chinese for Taiwanese Young Adults
Wu, T., Huang, S.-W., Chen, J., Ruckwongpatr, K., Kukreti, S., Strong, C., Pontes, H. M., Lin, I., Lin, C., Potenza, M. N., et al. (2023) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2023.152396 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“The internal consistency of the IGDS9-SF was excellent in both the English ( α = 0.87) and simplified Chinese versions ( α = 0.94) [32,41].”
InfluentialSelf-citation
Adaptation and validation of the Online-Fear of Missing Out Inventory into Turkish and the association with social media addiction, smartphone addiction, and life satisfaction
Bakioğlu, F., Deniz, M., Griffiths, M. D., & Pakpour, A. H. (2022) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-022-00856-y · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Self-citation
Connecting self-esteem to problematic AI chatbot use: the multiple mediating roles of positive and negative psychological states
Yao, R., Qi, G., Sheng, D., Sun, H., & Zhang, J. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1453072 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Reliability and validity study of the Indonesian Smartphone Application-Based Addiction Scale (SABAS) among college students
Nurmala, I., Nadhiroh, S. R., Pramukti, I., Tyas, L., Zari, A., Griffiths, M., & Lin, C.-Y. (2022) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e10403 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“Construct validity of the SABAS was then examined using the CFA given that the SABAS has been found to be a unidimensional instrument (Chen et al., 2020; Leung et al., 2020; Lin et al., 2017; Poon et al., 2021; Wu et al., 2017; Yam et al., 2019).”
MethodResultInfluentialSelf-citation
Understanding the Association Between Intolerance of Uncertainty and Problematic Smartphone Use: A Network Analysis
Liu, C., Ren, L., Li, K., Yang, W., Li, Y., Rotaru, K., Wei, X., Yücel, M., & Albertella, L. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.917833 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“Finally, despite being used in several empirical studies, the validation of themodified nine-item Internet Gaming Disorder Scale - Short Form is still ongoing.”
MethodInfluential
Problematic Gaming in Malaysian University Students: Translation and Psychometric Evaluation of the Malay Language Versions of Gaming Disorder Test and Gaming Disorder Scale for Young Adults
GHAZI, F., Gan, W. Y., Tung, S. E. H., Chen, I., Poon, W. C., Siaw, Y.-L., Ruckwongpatr, K., Chen, J., Huang, S.-W., Griffiths, M. D., et al. (2023) · Evaluation & the Health Professions · doi:10.1177/01632787231185845 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“Currently, the BSMAS has been validated in many language versions (Chen et al., 2020a, 2020b; Leung et al., 2020; Lin et al., 2017; Monacis et al., 2017; Shin, 2022; Tung et al., 2022), including Malay (Tiong, 2020) and English versions for Malaysians (Tung et al., 2022).”
MethodSelf-citation
Psychometric Evaluation and Comparison of Two Gaming Disorder Measures Derived From the DSM-5 and ICD-11 Frameworks
Wang, H., & Cheng, C. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.577366 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Exploring mediational roles for self-stigma in associations between types of problematic use of internet and psychological distress in youth with ADHD
Lee, K.-Y., Chen, C., Chen, J., Liu, C., Chang, K., Fung, X. C. C., Chen, J., Kao, Y.-C., Potenza, M. N., Pakpour, A. H., et al. (2023) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2022.104410 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Self-citation
A rise in social media use in adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic: the French validation of the Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale in a Canadian cohort
Rouleau, R. D., Beauregard, C., & Beaudry, V. (2023) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-023-01141-2 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Social Exclusion and Short Video Addiction: The Mediating Role of Boredom and Self-Control
Zhang, Y., Bu, R., Zhao, J., & Li, X. (2024) · Psychology Research and Behavior Management · doi:10.2147/prbm.s463240 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“30 The single-dimensional scale includes six items scored on a 5-point Likert scale from “totally disagree” to “totally agree”.”
Psychometric properties and development of the Chinese versions of Gaming Disorder Test (GDT) and Gaming Disorder Scale for Adolescents (GADIS-A)
Chen, I., Chang, Y.-L., Yang, Y., Yeh, Y., Ahorsu, D. K., Adjorlolo, S., Strong, C., Hsieh, Y., Huang, P., Pontes, H. M., et al. (2023) · Asian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.ajp.2023.103638 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Self-citation
Problematic smartphone use and two types of problematic use of the internet and self-stigma among people with substance use disorders
Chang, C.-W., Chen, J., Huang, S.-W., Potenza, M. N., Su, J.-A., Chang, K., Pakpour, A. H., & Lin, C. (2023) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2023.107807 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Self-citation
Internet addiction and maladaptive schemas: The potential role of disconnection/rejection and impaired autonomy/performance
Ostovar, S., Bagheri, R., Griffiths, M. D., & Hashim, I. H. M. (2021) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.2581 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Self-citation
Meta-analysis of Reliability and Validity of the Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale (BSMAS)
Bottaro, R., Griffiths, M. D., & Faraci, P. (2025) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-025-01461-x · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Self-citation
Attached to Virtual Dreams
Costanzo, A., Santoro, G., Russo, S., Cassarà, M. S., Midolo, L. R., Billieux, J., & Schimmenti, A. (2021) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/nmd.0000000000001356 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“The BSMAS has been translated into different languages and shows good psychometric properties (Bányai et al., 2017; Leung et al., 2020; Lin et al., 2017; Monacis et al., 2017).”
Method
Social Media Addiction among Vietnam Youths: Patterns and Correlated Factors
Doan, L. P., Le, L. K., Nguyen, T. T., Nguyễn, T. T. P., Vu, M. N. L., Vu, G. T., Latkin, C. A., Ho, C. S. H., Ho, R., & Zhang, M. W. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph192114416 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“Subsequent validation studies were undertaken in other cohorts, most recently in Hong Kong and Taiwan, which also yielded favorable results [19].”
Result
The association between smartphone use and sleep quality, psychological distress, and loneliness among health care students and workers in Saudi Arabia
Alzhrani, A. M., Aboalshamat, K. T., Badawoud, A. M., Abdouh, I. M., Badri, H. M., Quronfulah, B. S., Mahmoud, M. A., & Rajeh, M. T. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0280681 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Digital Reflections: Narcissism, Stress, Social Media Addiction, and Nomophobia
Maftei, A., & Pătrăușanu, A.-M. (2024) · The Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00223980.2023.2256453 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“Social media addiction is a specific form of Internet addiction (Chen et al., 2020; Leung et al., 2020), referring to the maladaptive use of social networks, characterized by addiction-specific symptoms and/or reduced self-regulation (Sun & Zhang, 2021).”
Background
Loot boxes, gambling-related risk factors, and mental health in Mainland China: A large-scale survey
Xiao, L. Y., Fraser, T. C., Nielsen, R. K. L., & Newall, P. W. S. (2023) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2023.107860 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
The YouTube Addiction Scale: Psychometric Evidence for a New Instrument Developed Based on the Component Model of Addiction
Pakpour, A. H., Jafari, E., Zanjanchi, F., Potenza, M. N., & Lin, C. (2023) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-023-01216-6 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“IA may be classified into generalized and specific forms (Chen et al., 2020a, b; Leung et al., 2020).”
Self-citation
Smartphone Use and Psychological Well-being: the Moderating Role of Emotion Regulation
Fortes, A. B., Broilo, P. L., & Lisbôa, C. S. D. M. (2020) · Trends in Psychology · doi:10.1007/s43076-020-00051-1 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Smartphone addiction and perceived pain among nursing students: a cross-sectional study
Özdi̇l, K., Çatıker, A., & Büyüksoy, G. D. B. (2021) · Psychology Health & Medicine · doi:10.1080/13548506.2021.1958236 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“In the literature, it is seen that there are many studies evaluating the internet and smartphone addiction status of university students with different scales (Leung et al., 2020; Chen et al., 2020b; Lin et al., 2019).”
Background
The roles of behavioral inhibition/activation systems and impulsivity in problematic smartphone use: A network analysis
Guo, Z., He, Y., Yang, T., Ren, L., Qiu, R., Zhu, X., & Wu, S. (2022) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2022.1014548 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Potential risk and protective factors related to problematic social media use among adolescents in Iran: A latent profile analysis
Akbari, M., Bahadori, M. H., Khanbabaei, S., Milan, B. B., Jamshidi, S., & Potenza, M. N. (2023) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2023.107802 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
The relationship between family functioning and social media addiction among university students: a moderated mediation model of depressive symptoms and peer support
Qi, Y., Zhao, M., Geng, T., Tu, Z., Lu, Q., Li, R., Niu, L., Qu, W., Zhong, Y., & Gao, Y. (2024) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-024-01818-2 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“Individuals with a score of 19 or higher [52] were considered to have SMA.”
BackgroundMethod
The Effect of Primary and Middle School Teachers’ Problematic Internet Use and Fear of COVID-19 on Psychological Need Thwarting of Online Teaching and Psychological Distress
Yi, J., Chen, I., Lin, C., Li, C.-C., Liao, X.-L., Zhi-hui, W., & Gamble, J. H. (2021) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare9091199 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“The psychometric properties of the Chinese version of SABAS have been established [54,55].”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Uncovering sample heterogeneity in gaming and social withdrawal behaviors in adolescent and young adult gamers in Hong Kong
Fong, T. C. T., Cheng, Q., Pai, C. Y., Kwan, I., Wong, C. L. H., Cheung, S. H., & YIP, P. S. F. (2023) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2023.115774 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Exploring Internet gaming disorder: an updated perspective of empirical evidence (from 2016 to 2021)
Mestre‐Bach, G., Fernández‐Aranda, F., & Jiménez‐Múrcia, S. (2022) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2022.152319 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Effects of sleep quality on the association between problematic internet use and quality of life in people with substance use disorder
Saffari, M., Chen, H., Chang, C.-W., Fan, C.-W., Huang, S.-W., Chen, J., Chang, K., & Lin, C. (2022) · BJPsych Open · doi:10.1192/bjo.2022.557 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Self-citation
The Psychometric Properties of the Arabic Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale
Abiddine, F. Z. E., Aljaberi, M. A. A., Alduais, A. M. S., Lin, C.-Y., Vally, Z., & Griffiths, M. D. (2024) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-024-01297-x · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“Moreover, the BSMAS has been used to assess the risk of PSMU across different cultures and languages (Chen et al., 2020a, 2020b, 2020c; Ghazi et al., 2024; Leung et al., 2020; Tung et al., 2022; Yam et al., 2019).”
Self-citation
Comorbidity among symptoms of internet gaming disorder, social withdrawal, and depression in 3430 young people in Hong Kong: A network analysis
Fong, T. C. T., Junus, A., Wen, M., & YIP, P. S. F. (2024) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2024.05.091 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Attentional Bias Is Associated with Negative Emotions in Problematic Users of Social Media as Measured by a Dot-Probe Task
Zhao, J., Zhou, Z., Sun, B., Zhang, X., Zhang, L., & Fu, S. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph192416938 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Network analysis of the relationships between problematic smartphone use and anxiety, and depression in a sample of Chinese college students
Guo, Z., Yang, T., Qiu, R., Qiu, H., Ren, L., Liu, X., Han, Z., & Zhu, X. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1097301 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“Smartphone Application-Based Addiction Scale (SABAS) The valid Chinese version of SABAS was used to assess the likelihood of PSU (38, 39).”
Method
The association of care burden with motivation of vaccine acceptance among caregivers of stroke patients during the COVID-19 pandemic: mediating roles of problematic social media use, worry, and fear
Kukreti, S., Strong, C., Chen, J., Chen, Y., Griffiths, M. D., Hsieh, M., & Lin, C. (2023) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-023-01186-3 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Self-citation
Assessing Problematic Social Media Use in Adolescents by Parental Ratings: Development and Validation of the Social Media Disorder Scale for Parents (SMDS-P)
Austermann, M. I., Thomasius, R., & Paschke, K. (2021) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm10040617 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Developmental pathways from parental rejection to adolescent internet gaming disorder: A parallel process latent growth model
Zhu, J., & Chen, Y. (2021) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2021.106128 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Motors of COVID-19 Vaccination Acceptance Scale (MoVac-COVID19S): Evidence of Measurement Invariance Across Five Countries
Chen, I.-H., Wu, P.-L., Yen, C.-F., Ullah, I., Shoib, S., Zahid, S. U., Bashir, A., Iqbal, N., Addo, F.-M., Adjaottor, E. S., et al. (2022) · Risk Management and Healthcare Policy · doi:10.2147/rmhp.s351794 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Self-citation

EVALUATION OF INTERNET ADDICTION AND EFFECTS AMONG UNIVERSITY STUDENTS
Iskrenović-Momčilović, O., & Momčilović, A. (2017) · Journal Plus Education
Analysis and research of the problem of teenagers' internet addiction
Yuhong, Y. (2010) · China Medical Herald
Modification in the Proposed Diagnostic Criteria for Internet Addiction
Beard, K. W., & Wolf, E. (2001) · CyberPsychology & Behavior · doi:10.1089/109493101300210286 · Cited by 1,018 · see citing works
Malaysian Internet Surfing Addiction (MISA): Factors affecting the Internet use and its consequences
Ling, C. S., Ramadass, S., Altaher, A., & Arjuman, N. C. (2011) · International Conference on Computer Applications and Industrial Electronics · doi:10.1109/iccaie.2011.6162202 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
THEORETICAL ANALYSIS OF THE INTERNET PROBLEM – DEPENDENCE OF YOUNG SCHOOL CHILDREN IN MODERN PSYCHOLOGICAL LITERATURE
Коваленко, С. В., & Makovetskaya, A. D. (2021) · doi:10.36906/ksp-2021/52

Authors: Leung, H., Pakpour, A. H., Strong, C., Lin, Y.-C., Tsai, M.-C., Griffiths, M. D., Lin, C.-Y., & Chen, I.-H.
Affiliations: Hong Kong Polytechnic University (HK)
Qazvin University of Medical Sciences (IR)
National Cheng Kung University Hospital (TW)
National Taipei University of Education (TW)
Nottingham Trent University (GB)
Qufu Normal University (CN)
Corresponding author: Lin, Chung-Ying
ORCID: Leung, Hildie
Pakpour, Amir H.
Strong, Carol
Lin, Yi-Ching
Tsai, Meng-Che
Griffiths, Mark D.
Lin, Chung-Ying
Chen, I-Hua
Venue: Addictive Behaviors
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2020-02
Volume: 101
Pages: 105969
ISSN: 0306-4603 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2019.04.027
OpenAlex: W2941523253
Semantic Scholar: 69ecdf915be4d6682db4658ea658e8fff48a1d0a
Cited by: 290
References: 64
Citations by year: 2026: 36 · 2025: 56 · 2024: 42 · 2023: 48 · 2022: 50 · 2021: 32 · 2020: 20 · 2019: 6
FWCI: 54.38
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
urn.kb.se
Licence: other-oa
www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
www.elsevier.com/legal/tdmrep-license (tdm)
Locations: Addictive Behaviors (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Nottingham Trent University's Institutional Repository (Nottingham Trent Repository) (acceptedVersion)
Diva portal (Dalarna University Library) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
Funders: Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Gambling Behavior and Treatments
Keywords: social media addiction, smartphone addiction, internet gaming disorder, Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale, measurement invariance, cross-cultural validation, Hong Kong, Taiwan, university students, behavioral addiction
MeSH terms: Internet Addiction Disorder, Adult, Factor Analysis, Statistical, Female, Hong Kong, Humans, Male, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Psychometrics, Students, Taiwan, Reproducibility of Results, Young Adult

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Measurement invariance across young adults from Hong Kong and Taiwan among three internet-related addiction scales: Bergen social media addiction scale (BSMAS), smartphone application-based addiction scale (SABAS), and internet gaming disorder scale-short form (IGDS-SF9) (study Part A)

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