Fecal glucocorticoids and their metabolites as indicators of stress in various mammalian species: a literature review
Abstract
Conservation medicine is a discipline in which researchers and conservationists study and respond to the dynamic interplay between animals, humans, and the environment. From a wildlife perspective, animal species are encountering stressors from numerous sources. With the rapidly increasing human population, a corresponding increased demand for food, fuel, and shelter; habitat destruction; and increased competition for natural resources, the health and well-being of wild animal populations is increasingly at risk of disease and endangerment. Scientific data are needed to measure the impact that human encroachment is having on wildlife. Nonbiased biometric data provide a means to measure the amount of stress being imposed on animals from humans, the environment, and other animals. The stress response in animals functions via glucocorticoid metabolism and is regulated by the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Fecal glucocorticoids, in particular, may be an extremely useful biometric test, since sample collection is noninvasive to subjects and, therefore, does not introduce other variables that may alter assay results. For this reason, many researchers and conservationists have begun to use fecal glucocorticoids as a means to measure stress in various animal species. This review article summarizes the literature on many studies in which fecal glucocorticoids and their metabolites have been used to assess stress levels in various mammalian species. Variations between studies are…
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The FGM levels obtained in this study represent a pooled measure over a certain time period, reflecting cumulative secretion.
“Consequently, we consider the FGM levels obtained as a pooled measure over a certain time period, representing a cumulative secretion, as suggested by several other authors (e.g.Goymann et al., 1999;Palme, 2005;Keay et al., 2006;Cockrem, 2007;Palme, 2012).”
From Effect of weather conditions and presence of visitors on adrenocortical activity in captive African penguins (Spheniscus demersus) (2017) · cites this paper as Keay et al., 2006
There is marked variation in plasma glucocorticoid concentrations at any point in time because of pulsatile secretion patterns and circadian rhythms.
“Furthermore, there is marked variation in plasma GC concentrations at any point in time because of pulsatile secretion patterns and circadian rhythms [67].”
From The visitor effect on zoo animals: implications and opportunities for zoo animal welfare (2019) · cites this paper as [67]
Faecal sampling offers the advantage of representing the average glucocorticoid metabolite concentration output over hours or days and represents pooled quantities of glucocorticoid secretion from the adrenal medulla, dampening pulsatile effects.
“This technique offers the advantage of representing the average GC metabolite concentration output over hours or days [69] and, therefore, represents pooled quantities of GC secretion from the adrenal medulla (i.e., baseline plasma GC), dampening pulsatile effects [67,70].”
From The visitor effect on zoo animals: implications and opportunities for zoo animal welfare (2019) · cites this paper as [67]
Cites
Touma, C., Sachser, N., Möstl, E., & Palme, R. (2003) · General and Comparative Endocrinology · doi:10.1016/s0016-6480(02)00620-2 · Cited by 581 · see citing works
ULTRADIAN AND CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS IN THE PLASMA CONCENTRATION OF CORTISOL IN SHEEP
FULKERSON, W. J., & TANG, B. Y. (1979) · Journal of Endocrinology · doi:10.1677/joe.0.0810135 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
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The visitor effect on zoo animals: implications and opportunities for zoo animal welfare
Sherwen, S. L., & Hemsworth, P. H. (2019) · Animals · doi:10.3390/ani9060366 · Cited by 267 · see citing works
“Furthermore, there is marked variation in plasma GC concentrations at any point in time because of pulsatile secretion patterns and circadian rhythms [67].”
BackgroundWatson, R., Munro, C., Edwards, K. L., Norton, V., Brown, J. L., & Walker, S. L. (2013) · General and Comparative Endocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.ygcen.2013.02.001 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
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Ozella, L., Anfossi, L., Di Nardo, F., & Pessani, D. (2017) · General and Comparative Endocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.ygcen.2015.12.002 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
- Authors
- Keay, J. M., Singh, J., Gaunt, M. C., & Kaur, T.
- Affiliations
- Virginia–Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine
- Published
- 2006-09
- Volume
- 37
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 234-244
- ISSN
- 1042-7260 (ISSN-L)
- 1937-2825
- OpenAlex
- W2149861584
- Cited by
- 238
- References
- 2
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 17 · 2021: 19 · 2020: 16 · 2019: 14 · 2018: 18 · 2017: 13 · 2016: 8 · 2015: 15 · 2014: 13 · 2013: 22 · 2012: 20
- FWCI
- 0.94
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- BioOne Complete (BioOne) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Veterinary › Small Animals › Animal Behavior and Welfare Studies
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Wildlife Ecology and Conservation
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
- Keywords
- fecal glucocorticoids, fecal glucocorticoid metabolites, stress measurement, non-invasive biomarkers, mammals, conservation medicine, human-wildlife conflict, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, glucocorticoid metabolism, sample collection and storage, inter-study variability
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Animals, Wild, Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid, Circadian Rhythm, Conservation of Natural Resources, Feces, Glucocorticoids, Humans, Seasons, Species Specificity, Specimen Handling, Stress, Psychological, Ecosystem
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