Effect of weather conditions and presence of visitors on adrenocortical activity in captive African penguins (Spheniscus demersus)

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The effect of visitors on the welfare of captive animals has been widely studied for more than four decades.

“While the effect of visitors on the welfare of captive animals has been widely studied for more than four decades (Hosey, 2000;Davey, 2007;Hosey, 2013)”

• cites Hosey, 2000 sourceDisputed

  The Introduction says the visitor effect was not systematically investigated until comparatively recently, rather than widely studied for more than four decades. The Non-primate studies section also describes published studies of visitor effects on non-primates as virtually non-existent. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Davey, 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Hosey, 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The African Penguin is an endemic seabird of the coastal region of South Africa and Namibia, and is the only member of the Order Sphenisciformes which breeds in Africa.

“The African Penguin (Spheniscus demersus) is an endemic seabird of the coastal region of South Africa and Namibia, and is the only member of the Order Sphenisciformes which breeds in Africa (Shelton et al., 1984).”

• cites Shelton et al., 1984 sourceSupported

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Previous studies have demonstrated that assessing FGMs is useful for detecting and highlighting potentially stressful situations which may influence the welfare of penguins, and it allows detection of individual differences of FGM concentrations.

“Previous studies have demonstrated that this method is useful for detecting and highlighting potentially stressful situations, which may influence the welfare of penguins, and it allows the detection of individual differences of FGM concentrations (Anfossi et al., 2014;Ozella et al., 2015).”

• cites Anfossi et al., 2014 sourceSupported
• cites Ozella et al., 2015 sourceSupported

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The physiological stress response in vertebrates results in increased secretion of glucocorticoid hormones subsequent to activation of the HPA axis.

“The physiological stress response in vertebrates results in an increased secretion of glucocorticoid hormones (GCs) subsequent to the activation of the hypothalamic-pituitaryadrenal (HPA) axis (Möstl and Palme, 2002;Touma and Palme, 2005;Sheriff et al., 2011).”

• cites Möstl and Palme, 2002 sourceSupported
• cites Touma and Palme, 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Sheriff et al., 2011 sourceSupported

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The penguins' diet was not modified throughout the study period to avoid alterations in gut flora and, as a consequence, steroid metabolism.

“Throughout the study period, the penguins' diet was not modified in order to avoid alterations in gut flora and, as a consequence, steroid metabolism (Sheriff et al., 2011).”

• cites Sheriff et al., 2011 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Samples were frozen immediately after collection at −20 °C.

“Samples were gathered in cryovials and frozen immediately after collection at À20 °C (Millspaugh and Washburn, 2004;Palme et al., 2005;Sheriff et al., 2011).”

• cites Millspaugh and Washburn, 2004 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Palme et al., 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Sheriff et al., 2011 sourcePartly supported

  The 'Sample collection and storage' section recommends freezing fecal samples immediately after collection. It does not specify −20 °C for those samples or mention cryovials; its recommendation to store at or below −20 °C applies to processed blood samples, not immediate freezing after collection. The paper also does not report that the citing authors' samples were handled this way. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

A relationship exists between the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) and hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axes, and both testosterone and oestrogen modulate the response of the HPA axis.

“As a relationship exists between the hypothala mic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) and the hypothalamic-pituitary-go nadal (HPG) axes, and both testosterone and oestrogen modulate the response of the HPA axis (Toufexis et al., 2014)”

• cites Toufexis et al., 2014 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A sex-dependent excretion of FGMs exists in certain bird species, such as the European stonechat, Peregrine falcon, and Adelie penguins.

“Conversely, a sex-dependent excretion of FGMs does exist in certain bird species, such as the European stonechat (Saxicola torquata rubicola) (Goymann, 2005), the Peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) (Staley et al., 2007), and the Adelie penguins (Pygoscelis adeliae) (Ninnes et al., 2010).”

• cites Goymann, 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Staley et al., 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Ninnes et al., 2010 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The finding that FGM concentrations did not differ between sexes agreed with results obtained in other avian species, such as the Mourning dove and the Golden eagle.

“This result agreed with those obtained in other avian species, such as the Mourning dove (Zenzaida macrura) (Washburn et al., 2003) and the Golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) (Staley et al., 2007).”

• cites Washburn et al., 2003 sourceSupported
• cites Staley et al., 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In gorals, an increase of glucocorticoids was observed during summer months, which could reflect heat stress.

“In particular, authors observed an increase of glucocorticoids in gorals during the summer months and this result could reflect a form of heat stress in this species (Khonmee et al., 2014).”

• cites Khonmee et al., 2014 sourcePartly supported

  The Results (page not provided) report that summer fecal glucocorticoid concentrations were highest at Night Safari but lowest at Omkoi. The Discussion (page not provided) says the higher summer concentrations at Night Safari could reflect heat stress. The claim omits this facility-specific qualification and implies an increase in gorals generally. (LLM, conf=0.90)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Recent studies on captive animals such as African lions, Siberian tigers, and gorals show that high temperature could affect animal welfare.

“A few recent studies on captive animals, such as African lions (Panthera leo), Siberian tigers (Pantera tigris) (Young et al., 2013) and gorals (Naemorhedus griseus) (Khonmee et al., 2014) show that high temperature could affect animal welfare.”

• cites Young et al., 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Khonmee et al., 2014 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

In this species, FGM levels begin to increase after 5 h from a punctual stress and decrease within 30 h.

“In a previous study, we demonstrated that in this species the FGM levels begin to increase after 5 h from a punctual stress (i.e.capture and immobilization of animals for 5 min) and decrease within 30 h (Ozella et al., 2015).”

• cites Ozella et al., 2015 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The effect of weather parameters on glucocorticoid production has been widely studied in various livestock species to assess consequences of stress on productivity.

“Instead, the effect of weather parameters on glucocorticoid production has been widely studied in various livestock species (Silanikove, 2000), in order to assess the consequences of stress on productivity (Hill and Wall, 2015).”

• cites Silanikove, 2000 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Hill and Wall, 2015 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

The first two components of the PCA explained 99.9% of the whole variance, with PC1 explaining 94.1% and PC2 explaining 5.8%.

“The first two components of the PCA explained 99.9% of the whole variance (PC1 = 94.1%,PC2 = 5.8%)”

May combine two claims.

Mean temperature and the interaction terms Temp×Humidity, Temp×Wind, and Humidity×Wind affected adrenal activity in the African penguins.

“The results showed that the factors that affected adrenal activity were the mean temperature and the three factors considered as interaction terms, i.e.Temp ⁄ Humidity, Temp ⁄ Wind, and Humidity ⁄ Wind.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: FGM concentrations assessed during the day of faecal collection reflected the relative chronic stress accumulated during the previous day.

May combine two claims.

Mean FGM concentrations were lower when Temp×Humidity and Temp×Wind increased.

“FGM concentrations were lower when Temp ⁄ Humidity (p = 0.018), and Temp ⁄ Wind increased (p = 0.02)”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: FGM concentrations assessed during the day of faecal collection reflected the relative chronic stress accumulated during the previous day.

May combine two claims.

The average number of instantaneous visitors counted at the wooden footbridge was positively and significantly correlated with the average number of visitors counted at the glass panels and with the daily number of people admitted to the biopark.

“The average number of instantaneous visitor counted at the wooden footbridge (a) was positively and significantly correlated with the average number of visitors counted at the glass panels (b) (q = 0.78, p = 0.004), and with the daily evaluation of people admitted to the biopark (q = 0.79, p = 0.003).”

May combine two claims.

Mean wind speed, mean relative humidity, and mean numbers of instantaneous visitors at observation points (a) and (c) were not significant predictors of FGM concentrations.

“Conversely, mean wind speed, mean relative humidity, and mean numbers of instantaneous visitors counted at observation points (a) and (c) were not significant (F = 11.16,R 2 = 0.88, p = 0.036).”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: FGM concentrations assessed during the day of faecal collection reflected the relative chronic stress accumulated during the previous day.

May combine two claims.

Accumulated rainfall showed very low variability during the observation period, with 0 mm rainfall on 10 of 12 days.

“The accumulated rainfall showed very low variability during the observation period (the rainfall was 0 mm for 10 days out of 12)”

May combine two claims.

Daily mean FGM concentrations varied across the data collection period and significantly differed between sampling days.

“Daily mean FGM concentrations varied across the data collection period and they significantly differed between sampling days.”

May combine two claims.

In this study, FGM levels did not show age-related differences and did not decrease with age.

“Our results did not show any age-related differences, and there was no decrease in FGM levels with age.”

May combine two claims.

The interaction between mean temperature and mean relative humidity, as well as the interaction between mean temperature and mean wind speed, showed a negative relationship with FGM concentrations.

“However, when we considered the interaction between the mean temperature and the mean relative humidity, as well as the mean temperature and the mean wind speed, we observed a negative relationship with FGM concentrations.”

May combine two claims.

Weather factors did not act separately, and their interactions influenced animal welfare in an extremely complex way.

“As also demonstrated by our results, the weather factors did not act separately, and their interactions influenced animal welfare in an extremely complex way (Van laer et al., 2014).”

• cites Van laer et al., 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

African penguins are exhibited in zoos and aquaria all over the world, and as they face an elevated risk of extinction, ex situ conservation programs are becoming increasingly crucial.

“African penguins are exhibited in zoos and aquaria all over the world, and as they face an elevated risk of extinction, ex situ conservation programs are becoming increasingly crucial.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The main glucocorticoids produced by the adrenal gland are cortisol and corticosterone, with corticosterone being predominant in birds.

“The main GCs produced by the adrenal gland are cortisol and corticosterone, with the latter being predominant in birds (Möstl et al., 2005;Palme et al., 2005;Cockrem, 2007).”

• cites Möstl et al., 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Palme et al., 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Cockrem, 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Gender differences in adrenal activity have been previously reported in several species and may be due to different physiological and behavioural aspects.

“Gender differences in adrenal activity have been previously reported in several species and may be due to different physiological and behavioural aspects (Touma and Palme, 2005).”

• cites Touma and Palme, 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

If exposure to a stressor persists, chronic GC secretion can lead to deleterious consequences on animal behaviour, individual fitness and reproductive success, and can induce immunosuppression.

“If exposure to a stressor persists, chronic GC secretion can lead to deleterious consequences on animal behaviour, individual fitness and reproductive success, and can induce immunosuppression (Munck et al., 1984;Liptrap, 1993;Munck and Naráy-Fejes-Tóth, 1994).”

• cites Munck et al., 1984 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Liptrap, 1993 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Munck and Naráy-Fejes-Tóth, 1994 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Simulating naturalistic conditions could have significant benefits for zoo animals, such as reducing the negative effect of visitors.

“Our study shows that the simulating naturalistic conditions could have significant benefits for zoo animals, such as reducing the negative effect of visitors.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The current conservation status of the African penguin is Endangered, and the wild population has decreased to less than 75,000-80,000 mature individuals.

“The current conservation status of this species is ''Endangered”

• Also stated in: § 1. Introduction · plain

  “The population in the wild of this species has dramatically decreased in recent years to less than 75,000-80,000 mature individuals (BirdLife International, 2013).”

• cites BirdLife International, 2013Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The non-invasive method of faecal hormone sampling permits monitoring of the animal's endocrine status without capturing or handling the animals, which may compromise accurate assessment of stress.

“This non-invasive method permits the monitoring of the animal's endocrine status without the necessity to capture or handle the animals, which may compromise the accurate assessment of stress (Millspaugh and Washburn, 2004;Goymann, 2012).”

• cites Millspaugh and Washburn, 2004 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Goymann, 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Sample collection took place immediately after defecation to avoid bacterial and microbial degradation.

“Sample collection took place immediately after defecation to avoid bacterial and microbial degradation (Millspaugh and Washburn, 2004).”

• cites Millspaugh and Washburn, 2004 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Gender differences in FGMs could vary depending on the biological stage of birds, such as breeding period.

“gender differences in FGMs could vary depending on the biological stage of birds, such as breeding period.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Monitoring adrenal activity through non-invasive faecal hormone sampling is rapidly gaining popularity as a tool to assess zoo animal welfare.

“Monitoring adrenal activity through non-invasive faecal hormone sampling is rapidly gaining popularity as a tool to assess zoo animal welfare (Clark et al., 2012)”

• cites Clark et al., 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

African penguins start to become heat-stressed at air temperatures of 24 °C, when they have been observed panting, a behavioural adaptation to increase heat release with respiratory evaporation.

“Indeed, African penguins start to become heat-stressed at air temperatures of 24 °C, when they have been observed panting (Frost et al., 1976), a behavioural adaptation to increase heat release with respiratory evaporation.”

• cites Frost et al., 1976 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The zoo exhibit design influences the well-being of captive animals.

“Particularly, it is known that the zoo exhibit design influences the well-being of captive animals (Morgan and Tromborg, 2007;Young et al., 2013).”

• cites Morgan and Tromborg, 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Young et al., 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The absence of a visible physical barrier fosters a more positive attitude by the public towards the animals.

“At the same time, the absence of a visible physical barrier fosters a more positive attitude by the public towards the animals (Tofield et al., 2003).”

• cites Tofield et al., 2003 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Animals in zoos are often subjected to microclimatic conditions that can differ greatly from their natural habitat, and to which their species is not usually adapted.

“Moreover, animals in zoos are often subjected to microclimatic conditions that can differ greatly from their natural habitat, and to which their species is not usually adapted (Morgan and Tromborg, 2007).”

• cites Morgan and Tromborg, 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Removal or reduction of physical barriers and safety mechanisms in naturalistic exhibits leaves animals unprotected from direct trauma and injuries due to irresponsible visitor behaviour or wild animal predators.

“For example, the removal or reduction of the physical barriers and the safety mechanisms leave animals unprotected from direct trauma and injuries due to irresponsible visitor behaviour or wild animal predators (Sha et al., 2013).”

• cites Sha et al., 2013Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Naturalistic exhibits may allow animals greater freedom of movement, enhancing choice and control over interactions with visitors, which may reduce negative impacts from the public.

“It is possible that naturalistic exhibits allow animals greater freedom of movement, enhancing choice and control over their interactions with visitors (Davey, 2007), which may reduce potentially negative impacts from the public.”

• cites Davey, 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In order to adapt to hot climates, African penguins breed in burrows dug in guano, which maintains a constant microclimate, with high relative humidity, buffered temperatures and little exposure to the wind.

“Moreover, in order to adapt to hot climates, these penguins breed in burrows dug in guano, which maintains a constant microclimate, with high relative humidity, buffered temperatures and little exposure to the wind (Frost et al., 1976).”

• cites Frost et al., 1976 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The FGM levels obtained in this study represent a pooled measure over a certain time period, reflecting cumulative secretion.

“Consequently, we consider the FGM levels obtained as a pooled measure over a certain time period, representing a cumulative secretion, as suggested by several other authors (e.g.Goymann et al., 1999;Palme, 2005;Keay et al., 2006;Cockrem, 2007;Palme, 2012).”

• cites Goymann et al., 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Palme, 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Keay et al., 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

According to Köppen and Geiger (1930), the climate of Simon's Town is temperate-humid, classified as Csb: mesothermal with temperatures in the warmest month being less than 22 °C.

“According to Köppen and Geiger (1930), the climate of Simon's Town is temperate-humid, and is classified as Csb: mesothermal with temperatures in the warmest month being less than 22 °C.”

• cites Köppen and Geiger (1930)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Monitoring of FGMs is a valuable tool for advancing understanding of adrenal function and stress responses in captive animals, and can enhance ex situ management of threatened species.

“In conclusion, our study has shown that monitoring of FGMs is a valuable tool for advancing our understanding of adrenal function and stress responses in captive animals, and can enhance ex situ management of threatened species.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The exhibit design of naturalistic zoos simulates the natural habitats of animals, thus providing direct benefit to captive animals by promoting naturalistic behaviour.

“The exhibit design of naturalistic zoos simulates the natural habitats of animals, thus providing direct benefit to captive animals by promoting naturalistic behaviour (Sha et al., 2013).”

• cites Sha et al., 2013Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

High ambient temperature, wind speed and humidity are recognized as environmental stressing factors for farm animals.

“In particular, high ambient temperature, wind speed and humidity are recognized as environmental stressing factors for farm animals (Silanikove, 2000).”

• cites Silanikove, 2000 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source