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Cited by 57Physiological and biochemical adaptationsEvolution and Paleontology StudiesEffects of Environmental Stressors on Livestock

Basal Metabolic Rate of Canidae from Hot Deserts to Cold Arctic Climates

Careau, Vincent, Morand-Ferron, Julie, Thomas, Don·2007·Journal of Mammalogy
DOI 10.1644/06-mamm-a-111r1.1
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Abstract

Canids form the most widely distributed family within the order Carnivora, with members present in a multitude of different environments from cold arctic to hot, dry deserts. We reviewed the literature and compared 24 data sets available on the basal metabolic rate (BMR) of 12 canid species, accounting for body mass and climate, to examine inter- and intraspecific variations in mass-adjusted BMR between 2 extreme climates (arctic and hot desert). Using both conventional and phylogenetically independent analysis of covariance, we found that canids from the arctic climate zone had significantly higher mass-adjusted BMR than species from hot deserts. Canids not associated with either arctic or desert climates had an intermediate and more variable mass-adjusted BMR. The climate effect also was significant at the intraspecific level in species for which we had data in 2 different climates. Arctic and desert climates represent contrasting combinations of ambient temperatures and water accessibility that require opposite physiological adaptations in terms of metabolism. The fact that BMR varies within species when individuals are subjected to different climate regimes further suggests that climate is an important determinant of BMR.

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Crossref · 10.1644/06-mamm-a-111r1.1

Cites

62 of 62 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 44 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    Canids from arctic climates have a significantly higher mass-adjusted basal metabolic rate than canids from hot deserts.

    “Using both conventional and phylogenetically independent analysis of covariance, we found that canids from the arctic climate zone had significantly higher mass-adjusted BMR than species from hot deserts.”
    • Also stated in: § RESULTS · plain
      “High mass-adjusted BMR is associated with arctic climate, whereas low mass-adjusted BMR is asso-ciated with desert climate (post hoc test: P , 0.05; Fig. 3).”
    • Also stated in: § DISCUSSION · plain
      “Using both CLSR and PI analyses, we found that arctic canids have a significantly higher massadjusted BMR than desert canids.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Climate categories assigned from capture site and general distribution range reflect the climate to which each canid datum is adapted.
  • Findingown data

    Using phylogenetically independent contrasts, body mass explained 82.9% of the variation in basal metabolic rate.

    “Using PI contrasts, M b explained 82.9% of the variation in BMR (F ¼ 83.3, d.f.¼ 1, 14, P , 0.001; Fig. 2B).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The conventional least squares analysis of covariance model including climate and body mass explained 95.2% of the variance in basal metabolic rate.

    “The CLSR ANCOVA model including climate as a fixed effect and M b as a covariate explained 95.2% of the variance in BMR.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Subspecies of gray wolf, coyote, and red fox adapted to arctic and intermediate climates had higher mass-adjusted basal metabolic rates than their hot desert counterparts.

    “Subspecies of gray wolf, coyote, and red fox adapted to arctic and intermediate climates had a higher mass-adjusted BMR than their hot desert counterparts (1-tailed paired t-test: t ¼ 3.35, d.f.¼ 2, P ¼ 0.04; see specific symbols in Fig. 3).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Different climate populations of the same canid species can be treated as subspecies from different geographic locations with minimal gene flow.
    • Rests on an assumption: Climate categories assigned from capture site and general distribution range reflect the climate to which each canid datum is adapted.
  • Findingown data

    In the conventional least squares regression, body mass explained 92.7% of the variation in basal metabolic rate.

    “Using CLSR, M b explained 92.7% of the variation in BMR (F ¼ 281.4,d.f.¼ 1, 22, sum of weights ¼ 16, P , 0.001; Fig. 2A).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 22
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 17

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The phylogenetically independent slope between basal metabolic rate and mass was 0.95 ± 0.10, and its 95% confidence interval lower bound of 0.73 included both the conventional least squares slope and 0.75, so it did not differ significantly from either.

    “Although the slope of the relationship between BMR and mass (0.95 6 0.10) tended to be higher, the lower bound of the 95% CI (0.73) included both the slope of the CLSR analysis and 0.75 and thus did not differ significantly from either.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The slope of the basal metabolic rate-body mass relationship from the conventional least squares regression was 0.84 ± 0.05 and did not differ significantly from 0.75.

    “The slope of the relationship (0.84 6 0.05; lower bound of 95% confidence interval [CI] ¼ 0.74) did not differ significantly from 0.75, but was significantly higher than 0.67.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The climate effect in the conventional least squares analysis of covariance was significant, with an F value of 5.0 and P < 0.05.

    “Climate effect yielded an F value of 5.0 and was significant (P , 0.05).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Canids not associated with arctic or desert climates had an intermediate and more variable mass-adjusted basal metabolic rate.

    “Canids not associated with either arctic or desert climates had an intermediate and more variable mass-adjusted BMR.”
    • Also stated in: § RESULTS · plain
      “Canids in the intermediate climate category had more variable mass-adjusted BMR that was not significantly different from arctic and desert canids (post hoc test: P .0.05; Fig. 3).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Climate categories assigned from capture site and general distribution range reflect the climate to which each canid datum is adapted.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The relation between basal metabolic rate and diet was significant when restricted to 9 canid species but did not take phylogeny into account.

    “This relation also was significant when restricted to 9 canid species, but did not take phylogeny into account.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Muñoz-Garcia and Williams 2005

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Results were similar using Pagel's arbitrary branch lengths, so only log-transformed branch lengths are presented.

    “We obtained similar results using Pagel's (1992) arbitrary branch lengths, so we present results using log-transformed branch lengths only.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Pagel's (1992)

      Not checked in the free run.

    • The authors state this as an assumption: The red fox subspecies for which data were available diverged 0.5 million years ago.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    The study used Monte Carlo simulations with 1,000 runs along the phylogeny to generate a null distribution of F values incorporating phylogenetic effects.

    “We used Monte Carlo computer simulations (n ¼ 1,000) made along our phylogeny to generate a null distribution of F values that incorporate phylogenetic effects, and took the 95th percentile as the critical value.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Garland et al. 1993

      Not checked in the free run.

    • The authors state this as an assumption: The basal metabolic rate of ancestral canids did not differ significantly from that of extant species.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Canids are the most widely distributed family in the order Carnivora, with members on every continent except Antarctica.

    “Canids are the most widely distributed family in the order Carnivora, with members on every continent except Antarctica (Ginsberg and Macdonald 1990).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ginsberg and Macdonald 1990

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A recent phylogenetic analysis suggests that basal metabolic rate is correlated with diet among carnivores, with meat-eating species having larger home ranges and higher mass-adjusted basal metabolic rates than vegetable-eating species.

    “However, a recent phylogenetic analysis suggests that BMR is correlated with diet among carnivores; species that eat meat have larger home ranges and higher mass-adjusted BMRs than species that eat vegetable matter (Mun ˜oz-Garcia and Williams 2005).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Muñoz-Garcia and Williams 2005

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In deserts, ambient temperatures can reach more than 50°C and are accompanied by intense solar radiation, desiccating winds, and an absence of drinkable water.

    “In deserts, the ambient temperatures can reach more than 508C and be accompanied by intense solar radiation, desiccating winds, and an absence of drinkable water (Bartholomew 1964).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bartholomew 1964

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Body mass has long been recognized as the main factor affecting basal metabolic rate.

    “Although body mass (M b ) has long been recognized as the main factor affecting BMR (Kleiber 1932(Kleiber , 1961)), there remains uncertainty concerning the precise allometric scaling exponent between BMR and M b (White andSeymour 2005a, 2005b).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Kleiber 1932

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Kleiber 1961

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    The study performed a one-tailed paired t-test on three species with data in more than one climate to test the intraspecific climate effect.

    “To examine whether the climate effect is present at the intraspecific level, we performed a 1-tailed paired t-test on the 3 species (gray wolf, coyote, and red fox) for which we obtained physiological data in more than 1 climate.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Different climate populations of the same canid species can be treated as subspecies from different geographic locations with minimal gene flow.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Interspecific comparisons have reported a significant association between mammalian basal metabolic rate and diet using conventional statistics but not with phylogenetically based methods.

    “Interspecific comparisons of mammalian BMR have reported a significant association with diet (or food habits) using conventional statistics (McNab 1986(McNab , 1989(McNab , 1992(McNab , 2003)), but not with phylogenetically based methods (Cruz-Neto et al. 2001;Degen et al. 1998;Genoud 2002).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites McNab 1986

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites McNab 1989

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites McNab 1992

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Several studies have reported relatively high mass-adjusted basal metabolic rate in Nearctic and Palearctic species and low mass-adjusted basal metabolic rate in desert species.

    “This is in accordance with several studies that have reported relatively high mass-adjusted BMR in Nearctic and Palearctic species (Lovegrove 2000) and low mass-adjusted BMR in desert species (Lovegrove 2000;MacMillen and Garland 1989;Shkolnik and Schmidt-Nielsen 1976;White 2003).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Lovegrove 2000

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites MacMillen and Garland 1989

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Shkolnik and Schmidt-Nielsen 1976

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Cold arctic and hot desert climates each offer great physiological challenges to mammals living there.

    “Cold arctic and hot desert climates each offer great physiological challenges to mammals living there.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bartholomew 1964

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Measures of basal metabolic rate have been made for 12 canid species, representing 33% of the family.

    “Measures of BMR have been made for 12 canid species, representing 33% of the family (36 species, according to Macdonald and Sillero-Zubiri 2004), placing the canids among the most studied group of mammals in terms of BMR.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Macdonald and Sillero-Zubiri 2004

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Some broadly distributed canids are present in both arctic and desert regions.

    “Additionally, some more-broadly distributed canids are present in both arctic and desert regions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Afik and Pinshow 1993

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Burt and Grossenheider 1992

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Macdonald and Sillerio-Zubiri 2004

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Variation in mass-adjusted basal metabolic rate among canids may not be due to diet but rather to climatic effects, which might be correlated with diet.

    “Our results suggest that variation in massadjusted BMR may not be due to diet, but rather to climatic effects (which might be correlated with diet), meaning that simple ''cause-and-effect'' relationships must be taken with caution.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Basal metabolic rate is correlated with both field and maximum rates of metabolism in mammals.

    “Basal metabolic rate (BMR, minimum metabolic rate of postabsorptive inactive endotherms while in their resting phase and within their thermoneutral zone) gains ecological significance when one considers that it is correlated with both field and maximum rates of metabolism (energy expenditure) in mammals (Rezende et al. 2004;Ricklefs et al. 1996).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Rezende et al. 2004

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Ricklefs et al. 1996

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The canid allometric exponents of 0.84 and 0.95 are high and fall at the extreme upper bound of the frequency distribution for a sample size of 15 species.

    “The exponents for canids (0.84 and 0.95 for our CLSR and PI analyses, respectively) are intriguingly high and fall at the extreme upper bound of the frequency distribution for a sample size of 15 species (White and Seymour 2005a:figure 1C).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites White and Seymour 2005a

      Not checked in the free run.

    • The authors state this as an assumption: The red fox subspecies for which data were available diverged 0.5 million years ago.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In the data set of Muñoz-Garcia and Williams (2005), the three species with lower meat intake are closely related and restricted to desert environments.

    “As seen in the data set of Mun ˜oz-Garcia and Williams (2005), the 3 species with lower meat intake in their diet are not only closely related, but are also restricted to desert environments (V.cana, V. zerda, and V. rueppellii).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Muñoz-Garcia and Williams 2005

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    For a given insulation value, increasing basal metabolic rate broadens the thermoneutral zone and extends its lower limit to colder ambient temperatures.

    “It should be noted that for a given insulation value, increasing the BMR has the effect of broadening the thermoneutral zone and extending the lower limit to colder ambient temperatures (Schmidt-Nielsen 1997).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Schmidt-Nielsen 1997

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The study used data only when individuals were weighed as adults and metabolic measures were taken in the thermoneutral zone while animals were inactive and postabsorptive.

    “We used data when individuals were weighed as adults and when metabolic measures were taken in their thermoneutral zone while animals were inactive and postabsorptive.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The arctic fox is highly adapted to cold arctic climates.

    “The arctic fox (Alopex lagopus) is highly adapted to cold arctic climates (Fuglei and Oritsland 1999), whereas many other foxlike canids are mainly restricted to hot and dry deserts (e.g., Blanford's fox [Vulpes cana], fennec fox [V.zerda], kit fox [V.macrotis], and Ru ¨ppell's fox [V.ruppellii]-Golightly and Ohmart 1983; Lindsay and Macdonald 1986;Noll-Banholzer 1979).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Fuglei and Oritsland 1999

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In arctic climates, ambient temperatures are generally below freezing for more than 8 months and can be as much as 90°C colder than an animal's core body temperature during winter.

    “In arctic climates, ambient temperatures are generally below freezing for more than 8 months and can be as much as 908C colder than an animal's core body temperature during winter (Scholander et al. 1950a).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Scholander et al. 1950a

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The study cannot exclude the possibility that high basal metabolic rate in arctic species and low basal metabolic rate in desert species represent phenotypic plasticity.

    “Our study cannot exclude the possibility that high BMR in arctic species and low BMR in desert species simply represent phenotypic plasticity whereby individuals adjust BMR in response to local environments.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    There remains uncertainty concerning the precise allometric scaling exponent between basal metabolic rate and body mass.

    “Although body mass (M b ) has long been recognized as the main factor affecting BMR (Kleiber 1932(Kleiber , 1961)), there remains uncertainty concerning the precise allometric scaling exponent between BMR and M b (White andSeymour 2005a, 2005b).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites White and Seymour 2005a

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites White and Seymour 2005b

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Many foxlike canids are mainly restricted to hot and dry deserts.

    “The arctic fox (Alopex lagopus) is highly adapted to cold arctic climates (Fuglei and Oritsland 1999), whereas many other foxlike canids are mainly restricted to hot and dry deserts (e.g., Blanford's fox [Vulpes cana], fennec fox [V.zerda], kit fox [V.macrotis], and Ru ¨ppell's fox [V.ruppellii]-Golightly and Ohmart 1983; Lindsay and Macdonald 1986;Noll-Banholzer 1979).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Golightly and Ohmart 1983

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Lindsay and Macdonald 1986

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Noll-Banholzer 1979

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The hierarchical nature of phylogenetic descent means species and subspecies may not be statistically independent, inflating degrees of freedom and making conventional significance levels untrustworthy.

    “Because of the hierarchical nature of phylogenetic descent, species and subspecies may not represent statistically independent points, degrees of freedom may be inflated, and significance level derived from conventional tests cannot be trusted (see Garland et al. 2005 for a recent review).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Garland et al. 2005

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Red foxes and coyotes have poorer insulation and their thermoneutral zone does not extend as low as that of the arctic fox, with -13°C for red fox.

    “Red foxes and coyotes have poorer insulation and their thermoneutral zone does not extend as low as that of the arctic fox (À138C for red fox- Irving et al. 1955).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Irving et al. 1955

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Canids are present in a great variety of habitats ranging from deserts to ice fields.

    “As a family, they are present in a great variety of habitats ranging from deserts to ice fields, (Macdonald and Sillerio-Zubiri 2004).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Macdonald and Sillerio-Zubiri 2004

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The study used both conventional least squares regression and phylogenetically independent statistical methods.

    “Therefore, we used both conventional least square regression (CSLR) and phylogenetically independent (PI) statistical methods.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
32 of 32

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The basal metabolic rate of ancestral canids did not differ significantly from that of extant species.

    “The BMR value was estimated using the CLSR regression, assuming that the BMR of ancestral canids was not significantly different from that of the extant species.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The red fox subspecies for which data were available diverged 0.5 million years ago.

    “The red fox evolved in Eurasia during the Pleistocene (Frati et al. 1998); hence we assumed that subspecies for which we had data separated 0.5 mya.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Different climate populations of the same canid species can be treated as subspecies from different geographic locations with minimal gene flow.

    “However, when different studies reported BMR of a species from different climatic zones, we treated these as subspecies from different geographic locations with possibly minimal gene flow.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Climate categories assigned from capture site and general distribution range reflect the climate to which each canid datum is adapted.

    “We assigned a climate category (arctic, intermediate, and hot desert) to each datum according to the location of the capture site and the general distribution range of each species reported in Macdonald and Sillerio-Zubiri (2004).”
4 of 4

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 5

  1. MacMillen R. E. Garland T. . 1989. Adaptive physiology. Pp. 143–168 in Advances in the study of Peromyscus (Rodentia) ( Lane J. N. Kirkland G. L. Jr. , eds.). Texas Tech University Press, Lubbock.
  2. Schmidt-Nielsen K. 1997. Animal physiology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom.
  3. Speakman J. R. Thomas D. W. . 2003. Physiological ecology and energetics of bats. Pp. 430–490 in Bat ecology ( Kunz T. H. Fenton M. B. , eds.). University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois.
  4. Underwood L. S. 1971. The bioenergetics of the arctic fox (Alopex lagopus L.). Ph.D. dissertation, Pennsylvania State University, University Park.
  5. Van Valkenburgh B. 1990. Skeletal and dental predictors of body mass in carnivores. Pp. 181–205 in Body size in mammalian paleobiology: estimation and biological implications ( Damuth J. MacFadden B. , eds.). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom.

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Authors
Careau, V., Morand-Ferron, J., & Thomas, D.
Affiliations
  • Université du Québec à Montréal (CA)
  • Université de Sherbrooke (CA)
Corresponding author
Thomas, Don
ORCID
Careau, Vincent
Venue
Journal of Mammalogy
Publisher
Oxford University Press (OUP)
Published
2007-04-20
Volume
88
Issue
2
Pages
394-400
ISSN
  • 0022-2372 (ISSN-L)
  • 1545-1542
DOI
10.1644/06-mamm-a-111r1.1
OpenAlex
W2098988464
Cited by
57
References
62
Citations by year
2026: 1 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 1 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 2 · 2018: 3 · 2017: 3 · 2015: 3 · 2014: 2 · 2013: 2 · 2012: 4
FWCI
2.88
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
closed
Locations
  • Journal of Mammalogy (publishedVersion)
  • BioOne Complete (BioOne) (submittedVersion)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Physiological and biochemical adaptations
  • Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Paleontology › Evolution and Paleontology Studies
  • Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Animal Science and Zoology › Effects of Environmental Stressors on Livestock
Keywords
basal metabolic rate, Canidae, Arctic climate, hot arid climate, body mass scaling, water access, ambient temperature, physiological adaptation

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