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Cited by 177Gender, Labor, and Family DynamicsWork-Family Balance ChallengesEmployment, Labor, and Gender Studies

Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD

Open access
Olivier Thévenon·2013·OECD Social, Employment and Migration Working Papers
DOI 10.1787/5k46cvrgnms6-en
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Abstract

This paper analyses the response of female labour force participation to the evolution of labour markets and policies supporting the reconciliation of work and family life. Using country-level data from the early 1980s for 18 OECD countries, we estimate the influence of labour market and institutional characteristics on female labour force participation, and full-time and part-time employment participation. The relationship (interactions, complementarity) between different policy measures is also analyzed, as well as potential variations in the influence of policies across different Welfare regimes. The results first highlight how the increase in female educational attainment, the expansion of the service sector the increase in parttime employment opportunities have boosted women’s participation in the labour force. By contrast, there is no such clear relationship between female employment rates and the growing share of public employment. Employment rates react to changes in tax rates, in leave policies, but the rising provision of childcare formal services to working parents with children not yet three years old is a main policy driver of female labour force participation. Different policy instruments interact with each other to improve overall effectiveness. In particular, the coverage of childcare services is found to have a greater effect on women’s participation in the labour market in countries with relatively high degrees of employment protection. The effect of childcare services on female full-time employment is particularly strong in Anglophone and Nordic countries. In all, the findings suggest that the effect of childcare services on female employment is stronger in the presence of other measures supporting working mothers (as, for instance paid parental leave) while the presence of such supports seems to reduce the effectiveness of financial incentives to work for second earners. The effect of cash benefits for families and the duration of paid leave on female labour force participation also vary across welfare regimes.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1787/5k46cvrgnms6-en

Cites

61 of 61 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

2 of 24 cited sources checked · 2 supported · 0 flagged

  • Premisecitation

    On average, the provision of paid leave produces a slight increase in the proportion of women engaged in paid work.

    “The available evidence suggests that, on average, the provision of paid leave produces a slight increase in the proportion of women engaged in paid work ( Del Boca et al., 2007;Jaumotte, 2003;Ruhm, 1998;and, Thévenon and Solaz, 2013).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Del Boca et al., 2007

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Jaumotte, 2003 source
    • cites Ruhm, 1998 source
  • Findingown data

    The coverage of childcare services has a greater effect on women's participation in the labour market in countries with relatively high degrees of employment protection.

    “In particular, the coverage of childcare services is found to have a greater effect on women's participation in the labour market in countries with relatively high degrees of employment protection.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Different policy instruments interact with each other to improve overall effectiveness.

    “Different policy instruments interact with each other to improve overall effectiveness.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingnone given

    The effect of childcare services on female full-time employment is particularly strong in Anglophone and Nordic countries.

    “The effect of childcare services on female full-time employment is particularly strong in Anglophone and Nordic countries.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Female employment rates react to changes in tax rates.

    “Employment rates react to changes in tax rates, in leave policies, but the rising provision of childcare formal services to working parents with children not yet three years old is a main policy driver of female labour force participation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 29
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 5
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 21

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Women's labour supply is highly responsive to variations in tax rates, especially when they can easily substitute their market activities with home production.

    “Their labour supply is highly responsive to variations in tax rates, especially when they can easily substitute their market activities with home production (Garibaldi and Wasmer, 2004).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Garibaldi and Wasmer, 2004 source
    • Rests on an assumption: Women are often the second earner in households, earning less than their partner.

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingreasoning

    There is an unambiguous positive correlation between the provision of childcare services for the under-3s and full-time female participation in the labour market.

    “There is an unambiguous positive correlation between the provision of childcare services for the under-3s and full-time and part-time female participation in the labour market.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    The rising incidence of part-time work had a positive effect on female labour force participation in the OECD, 1980-2007, for women aged 25-54.

    “The first three rows of Table 2 show that the growth of employment in the services sector and the rising incidence of part-time work had a positive effect on female labour force participation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    Growth of employment in the services sector had a positive effect on female labour force participation in the OECD, 1980-2007, for women aged 25-54.

    “The first three rows of Table 2 show that the growth of employment in the services sector and the rising incidence of part-time work had a positive effect on female labour force participation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Countries in Southern Europe are characterised by limited supports for working families and low public spending on family cash benefits, childcare services, and thus low childcare participation.

    “Countries in Southern Europe are characterised by limited supports for working families and low public spending on family cash benefits, childcares services and thus low childcare participation (Table A1).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Cross-national differences in female labour force participation remain wide, with female employment rates persistently high in Denmark and Iceland around 80% and persistently low in Turkey around 30%.

    “Cross-national differences are still wide, however (Figure 1), with female employment rates being persistently high in Denmark and Iceland around 80% and persistently low in Turkey at around 30%.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Public spending on family cash benefits is sometimes found to have a significant effect on female employment participation, but this finding is not robust across model specifications.

    “Public spending on family cash benefits is sometimes found to have a significant effect on female employment participation, but this finding is not robust across model specifications.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingreasoning

    Each additional year in education lowers the chances of working full-time.

    “However, in the model that separates the effects of full-time and part-time work, each additional year in education appears to lower the chances of working full-time.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Continental countries form a more heterogeneous group that occupies an intermediate position between the Anglophone and Nordic countries.

    “Continental countries form a more heterogeneous group that occupies an intermediate position between the Anglophone and Nordic countries.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    The growth of employment in the services and the rising incidence of part-time work have had a positive effect on female participation in the labour force.

    “The growth of employment in the services and the rising incidence of part-time work have had a positive effect on female participation in the labour force.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Policies to foster greater enrolment in formal childcare have a small but significant effect on full-time and part-time labour force participation, and these effects are much more robust than the effects of paid leave or other family benefits.

    “The analysis suggests that policies to foster greater enrolment in formal childcare have a small but significant effect on full-time and part-time labour force participation -and these effects are much more robust than the effects of paid leave or other family benefits.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    The association between per-child spending in family cash benefits and female labour force participation is strongly positive in Continental European countries and weaker or statistically non-significant in other Welfare State environments.

    “Also, the association between the per child spending in family cash benefits and labour force participation and full-time employment is strongly positive in”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The marginal effect of policy variables is conditional on countries' Welfare State context.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Both in-cash and in-kind support have been found to play a significant role in boosting female labour force participation.

    “Both in-cash and in-kind support have been found to play a significant role.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    In English-speaking countries, increases in the duration of paid leave and/or the relative tax rates faced by second earners in couple families appear to reduce female employment rates.

    “where increases in the duration of paid leave, and/or the relative tax rates faced by second earners in couple families appear to reduce female employment rates.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Higher tax rates on second earners discourage women's participation in the labour market, and that effect is tempered in a work-life balance friendly institutional environment.

    “Conversely, higher tax rates on second earners discourage women's participation in the labour market, and that effect is tempered in a work-life balance friendly institutional environment.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Taxing second earners has a negative effect on female labour force participation and full-time employment.

    “Conversely, taxing second earners has a negative effect on female labour force participation and full-time employment.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The efficiency of each policy instrument is linked in a non-linear manner with the sum of the direct effects of all institutions.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    The association between per-child spending in family cash benefits and female full-time employment is strongly positive in Continental European countries and weaker or statistically non-significant in other Welfare State environments.

    “Also, the association between the per child spending in family cash benefits and labour force participation and full-time employment is strongly positive in”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The marginal effect of policy variables is conditional on countries' Welfare State context.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Adding cross-section averages as regressors in a pooled OLS model does not give credible results because the panel data set is too unbalanced and generates coefficient estimates with very large standard errors.

    “Adding these variables as regressors in a pooled OLS model does not give credible results as our panel data set is too unbalanced and generates coefficient estimates with very large standard errors (see Appendix, TableA3).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Not only the magnitude but also the sign of the influence of policy measures varies across Welfare States.

    “Second, the last section of this paper provides evidence that not only the magnitude but also the sign of the influence of policy measures varies across Welfare States”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    In Nordic countries, additional weeks of paid leave appear to weaken labour force attachment and seem to raise the propensity to work part-time rather than full-time.

    “In such a context, additional weeks of paid leave appear to weaken labour force attachment and seem to raise the propensity to work part-time rather than full-time.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). The quote only partly states this claim.

    Interpretationnone given

    Small sample sizes might prevent the emergence of significant interaction terms.

    “Small sample sizes might prevent the emergence of significant terms.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Female labour market participation has expanded through two separate channels: an increase in part-time work in some countries and growth of public employment in others.

    “This appears to suggest that female labour market participation has expanded through two separate channels: an increase in part-time work in some countries and growth of public employment in others.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The sensitivity of full-time employment to childcare spending might reflect that greater or higher-quality provision of care increases average expenditure per child, making it easier to work full-time.

    “This outcome might reflect the fact that a greater or higher-quality provision of care increases average expenditure per child, so making it easier to work full-time.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Institutional interplay may create complementarities between policies, suggesting that the marginal efficiency of a particular kind of support from one institution is likely to depend on the presence or degree of development of others.

    “Institutional interplay may thus create complementarities between policies, which suggest that the marginal efficiency of a particular kind of support from one institution is likely to depend on the presence or degree of development of others (Aoki, 1994;Bassanini and Duval, 2006;and, Hall and Soskice, 2001).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Aoki, 1994 source
    • cites Bassanini and Duval, 2006 source
    • cites Hall and Soskice, 2001

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The diminishing effect of childcare services when spending on leave is higher may reflect greater use of leave entitlements by women with very young children.

    “By contrast, the effect of services seems to diminish when spending on leave is higher, which may reflect a greater use of leave entitlements by women with very young children.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Trends in female labour force participation within economies are influenced by the structure of the labour market, the institutional setting that supports work-life balance, and the improvement in women's average level of educational attainment.

    “Overall, this analysis has shown that trends in female labour force participation within economies are influenced by: • the structure of the labour market • the institutional setting that supports work-life balance • the improvement in women's average level of educational attainment.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Higher public spending on childcare may facilitate moves into full-time work or improve the quality of childcare without affecting hours worked per week.

    “as it may facilitate moves into full-time work or improve the quality of childcare without affecting hours worked per week.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    In-cash benefits are especially important to cover the fixed cost of mothers' labour force participation at full-time in Continental countries where formal childcare services are relatively scarce (except in France).

    “It might be the case that in-cash benefits are especially important to cover the fixed cost of mothers' labour force participation at full-time in Continental countries where formal childcare services are relatively scarce (except in France).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Formal childcare services are relatively scarce in Continental countries (except France).
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The marginal effect of policy variables is conditional on countries' Welfare State context.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    This finding makes sense in countries where labour markets are flexible in terms of moving in and out of the labour force as well as adjustment of working hours to better fit family needs and constraints, such as high childcare costs.

    “This finding makes sense in countries where labour markets are flexible in terms of moving in and out of the labour force as well as adjustment of working hours to better fit family needs and constraints, such as high childcare costs.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Labour markets in English-speaking countries are flexible in terms of moving in and out of the labour force and adjusting working hours to fit family needs.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    In Continental and Southern European countries, an increase in the duration of paid leave will attract more women to stay in work until childbirth, and the reward of qualifying for paid leave is strongest for low-income workers, with relatively high replacement rates.

    “In this context, an increase in the duration of paid leave will attract more women to stay in work until childbirth, and the reward of qualifying for paid leave is strongest for low-income workers, with relatively high replacement rates.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: In Continental and Southern European countries, there are considerable formal childcare constraints and flexible labour market opportunities are more limited than in Anglophone countries.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Economies have used public employment and part-time work as two separate channels to boost female labour force participation.

    “which seems to suggest that economies have used public employment and part-time work as two separate channels to boost female labour force participation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    In continental and southern European countries, the expansion of childcare services seems to have merely changed informal into formal provision and made it somewhat more likely for women to work part-time.

    “where the expansion childcare services seems to have merely changed informal into formal provision and have made it somewhat more likely for women to work part-time work.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The results are preliminary, since the data constraints do affect robustness tests.

    “The results are preliminary, since the data constraints do affect robustness tests.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Two other model specifications separately address full-time and part-time participation as dependent variables.

    “For this reason, two other model specifications separately address full-time and part-time participation as dependent variables.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Variables are defined in natural logarithms, except the indicator on tax incentives to work part time, which is expressed as percentage increases.

    “It should also be noted that variables are defined in natural logarithms.The only exception the indicator on tax incentives to work part time, which is expressed as percentage increases.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The model is estimated by two-stage least squares with heteroskedasticity-consistent errors.

    “The model is estimated by two-stage least squares with heteroskedasticity-consistent errors.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The provision of childcare services for the under-3s is essential to raise full-time employment among women in all countries, but its effect varies.

    “The provision of childcare services for the under-3s is essential to raise full-time employment among women in all countries, but its effect varies.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Tax incentives to work part-time are included in the equation for part-time participation.

    “Tax incentives to work part-time are then included in the equation for part-time participation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Unemployment and birth rates are instrumented by their lagged values.

    “Other potentially endogenous variables -also instrumented by their lagged values -are unemployment and birth rates.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Unemployment and birth rates are potentially endogenous.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Increases in leave duration merely postpone working hours decisions for a few weeks/months and may reduce female employment rates, as increased leave durations may make employers hesitant to hire many women of childbearing age.

    “In these circumstances, increases in leave duration merely postpone working hours decision for a few weeks/months and may reduce female employment rates, as increased leave durations may make employers hesitant to hire many women of childbearing age.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Increased leave durations may make employers hesitant to hire many women of childbearing age.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The proportion of women among all part-time workers is instrumented by its lagged values and the model's exogenous variables to limit potential bias due to endogeneity of part-time work.

    “This proportion is also instrumented by its lagged values (and by the exogenous variables of the model) in order to limit the potential bias due to endogeneity of part-time work.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Part-time work is often the result of labour supply decisions, although it can be shaped by demand-side constraints.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The full model includes the incidence of part-time work as an explanatory variable, but its inclusion can introduce a bias into estimates.

    “The full model includes the incidence of part-time work as an explanatory variable, but its inclusion can introduce a bias into estimates.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    All estimated models include country-fixed effects to focus on within-country over-time variations.

    “All the estimated models include country-fixed effects to focus on the variations over time and within a given country of the relationship between female labour force participation and its determinants.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Other countries also support sole parent families in need, but through general social assistance type payments.

    “Other countries also support sole parent families in need, but through general social assistance type payments.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Available information on public spending on early childhood education and care in the United States may underestimate the true level of local government spending on relevant policies.

    “Available information on public spending on early childhood education and care in the United States may also underestimate the true level amount of local government spending on relevant policies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Estimating a model specification with four couples of multiplicative institutions within a set of five institutions would involve incorporating 26 interaction terms, causing a substantial loss of degrees of freedom.

    “estimating a model specification with four couples of multiplicative institutions ( I k , I h ), ( I k , I m ), ( I k , I n ), and ( Ik , I p) would, in fact, involve incorporating a total of 26 interactions terms in the equation -the total number of combinations of two or more variables within a set of five institutions, thereby causing a substantial loss of degrees of freedom.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Production regimes coincide with differences in organisations that provide social protection and welfare support to workers and their families.

    “It also coincides with differences in organisations that provide social protection and welfare support to workers and their families(Esping-Andersen, 1999;Estevez-Abe et al., 2001;and, Soskice, 2005).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Esping-Andersen, 1999 source
    • cites Estevez-Abe et al., 2001 source
    • cites Soskice, 2005 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Data on cash transfers for Australia, Ireland, New Zealand and the United Kingdom include spending on categorical income support benefits for sole parent families.

    “Data on cash transfers for Australia, Ireland, New Zealand and the United Kingdom include spending on categorical income support benefits for sole parent families.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    In Canada, information on spending by local governments responsible for childcare and pre-school education is not reported to the Federal government.

    “In Canada, information on spending by local governments (that are responsible for childcare and pre-school education) is not reported to Federal government.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    One approach to account for common factors with heterogeneous factor loadings is to use cross-section averages of the dependent and independent variables as additional regressors.

    “One approach to account for common factors with heterogeneous factor loadings is to use cross-section averages of the dependent and independent variables as additional regressors(Pesaran, 2006).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Pesaran, 2006 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In the 'Varieties of Capitalism' approach, production regimes are characterised by various processes of skill production and wage determination, as well as by varying degrees of employment protection legislation.

    “In the”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Esping-Andersen, 1999 source
    • cites Estevez-Abe et al., 2001 source
    • cites Soskice, 2005 source
51 of 51

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Women are often the second earner in households, earning less than their partner.

    “Women are often the”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The efficiency of each policy instrument is dependent on the sum of effects that all institutions may have together on labour market decisions.

    “One way to test this assumes that the efficiency of each instrument would be dependent on the sum of effects that all institutions may have together on labour market decisions.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The efficiency of each policy instrument is linked in a non-linear manner with the sum of the direct effects of all institutions.

    “One way to test for systemic interaction is to assume that the efficiency of each policy instrument is linked in a non-linear manner with the sum of the direct effects of all institutions, as expressed by the following equation:”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Part-time work is often the result of labour supply decisions, although it can be shaped by demand-side constraints.

    “That is because part-time work is often the result of labour supply decisions, although it can be shaped by demand-side constraints.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The decision regarding the use of formal childcare is to some extent simultaneous with the choice between work and inactivity.

    “Because the decision regarding the use of formal childcare is to some extent simultaneous with the choice between work and inactivity, the use of childcare enrolment rates as a regressor introduces a risk of bias in the estimated coefficients.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Unemployment and birth rates are potentially endogenous.

    “Other potentially endogenous variables -also instrumented by their lagged values -are unemployment and birth rates.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Formal childcare services are relatively scarce in Continental countries (except France).

    “where formal childcare services are relatively scarce (except in France).”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Labour markets in English-speaking countries are flexible in terms of moving in and out of the labour force and adjusting working hours to fit family needs.

    “where labour markets are flexible in terms of moving in and out of the labour force as well as adjustment of working hours to better fit family needs and constraints, such as high childcare costs.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Increased leave durations may make employers hesitant to hire many women of childbearing age.

    “as increased leave durations may make employers hesitant to hire many women of childbearing age.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    In Continental and Southern European countries, there are considerable formal childcare constraints and flexible labour market opportunities are more limited than in Anglophone countries.

    “In these countries, there are considerable formal childcare constraints while flexible labour market opportuinities are more limited than in Anglophone countries”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Until recently many Anglophone countries included (and Ireland still does) categorical income support for sole parents until their dependent children were in their teens.

    “Until recently many Anglophone countries included (and Ireland still does) categorical income support for sole parents until their dependent children were in their teens.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The marginal effect of policy variables is conditional on countries' Welfare State context.

    “where the marginal effect ( ) of policy variables is now assumed to be conditional on countries' Welfare State context”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The effect of labour market characteristics and policies is homogeneous across countries.

    “This fixed-effect approach assumes that the effect of labour market characteristics and policies is homogeneous across countries (a hypothesis which will be further discussed below).”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Common shocks (recessions, context of production changes) affect all countries in the same way.

    “yearly time dummies control for common shocks (recessions, context of production changes) which are assumed to affect all countries in the same way”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    There are no unobserved common 'factors' whose effect may differ across countries.

    “it also implicitly assumes that there are no unobserved common 'factors' whose effect may differ across countries.”
15 of 15

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Part-time observation count implies a different average

    Minor

    The 472 observations across 18 countries imply about 26.2 years per country, not the 22.2 printed for the part-time employment rate.

    Reported 22.2 · recomputed 26.222222

  • Continental leave-spending summary exceeds its stated maximum

    Minor

    Table A1 gives an overall maximum of 1,352 for this group, yet its mean is 4,164 and its highest between-country mean is 9,272. Neither mean can exceed the maximum observation.

  • Tax-interaction interpretation reverses the reported sign

    Minor

    The text calls the second-earner tax interaction negative, but all three reported labour-force-participation interaction coefficients in Table 5 are positive and marked significant.

  • Full-time observation count implies a different average

    Minor

    Table 1 reports 472 observations across 18 countries, or about 26.2 years per country, but gives 22.2 for the full-time employment rate.

    Reported 22.2 · recomputed 26.222222

  • A Table 5 significance mark conflicts with its standard error

    Minor

    The part-time coefficient 0.027 is marked significant at 5%, although its reported standard error is 0.049. Their ratio is about 0.55, far below a 5% significance threshold.

  • English-speaking childcare coverage count conflicts with its average

    Minor

    The appendix names six English-speaking countries. Its stated 168 observations would therefore average 28 per country, not 13.5; the same row also prints an inconsistent country count of 18.

    Reported 13.5 · recomputed 28

  • Overall childcare-spending maximum is below a subgroup maximum

    Minor

    Table 1 gives 5,392.4 as the overall maximum for childcare spending per child, while the Nordic subgroup in Table A1 reaches 19,405 for the same variable.

  • Average observation count for women among part-timers is wrong

    Minor

    For this variable, 469 observations over 18 countries give about 26.1 years per country, rather than 22.7.

    Reported 22.7 · recomputed 26.055556

8 of 8

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 2

  1. [3]3. Aoki M. (1994), "The Contingent Governance of Teams: Analysis of Insitutional Complementarities", International Economic Review, 35: 657-76.
  2. [45]45. Thévenon, O. (2006), "Régimes d'Etat Social et convention familiale: une analyse des regulations emploi- famille", Economies et Sociétés, série Socio-économie du travail, Vol. 27, No. 6, pp. 137-71.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Thévenon, O.
Affiliations
Organisation de Coopération et de Développement Economiques (FR)
Corresponding author
Olivier Thévenon
Venue
OECD Social, Employment and Migration Working Papers
Publisher
Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD)
Published
2013-05-23
ISSN
1815-199X (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1787/5k46cvrgnms6-en
OpenAlex
W1852261349
Cited by
177
References
59
Citations by year
2026: 2 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 19 · 2022: 43 · 2021: 11 · 2020: 8 · 2019: 13 · 2018: 12 · 2017: 19 · 2016: 14 · 2015: 12 · 2014: 9
Type
report
Language
en
Open access
Locations
OECD social employment and migration working papers (publishedVersion)
Funders
European Commission
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender, Labor, and Family Dynamics
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Work-Family Balance Challenges
  • Social Sciences › Safety Research › Employment, Labor, and Gender Studies
Keywords
female labour force participation, work-family balance, childcare services, paid parental leave, part-time work, welfare regimes, employment protection, tax rates, women's educational attainment, service sector growth, public sector employees, working mothers

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-11.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-11.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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