Police officers' collaboration with rape victim advocates: Barriers and facilitators
Abstract
Secondary victimization may occur when rape victims make police reports. This can compromise the quality of official statements and jeopardize criminal cases. Rape reporters receive better treatment by police officers when advocates are involved and best practice police work includes such collaboration. Studies of advocates have described tension, role confusion, and poor communication with police officers. Many variables, including rape myth acceptance (RMA) and training on sexual assault dynamics, may affect officers’ collaboration with advocates. There were 429 police officers who responded to a survey measuring their victim interviewing skill, formal training about rape, years on the job, number of victims known personally, number of recent rape cases, RMA, and collaboration with advocates. Results suggest that officers’ interviewing skill, years on the job, and specific training are related to collaboration with victim advocates on rape cases. Professional, rather than personal, variables were most predictive of collaboration. Implications for officer selection and training are explored.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Rich & Seffrin (2012, 2013, 2014) received a score of 2 for reliability and validity due to administering author-constructed methods and providing validity and reliability scores.
“Rich & Seffrin, 2012, 2013, 2014), received a score of 2 for reliability and validity of their measure(s) due to administering author constructed methods, and providing validity and reliability scores.”
From From 'real rape' to real justice: A systematic review of police officers' rape myth beliefs (2017) · cites this paper as Rich & Seffrin, 2013
More training meant more likely to always include victim advocates when taking rape complaints.
“More training meant more likely to always include victim advocates when taking rape complaints.”
From From 'real rape' to real justice: A systematic review of police officers' rape myth beliefs (2017) · cites this paper as Rich and Seffrin (2013)
Female officers used victim advocates more extensively than their male colleagues, which resulted in better statements.
“Female officers used victim advocates more extensively that their male colleagues, which resulted in better statements.Although gender was less significant than sexual assault training.”
From From 'real rape' to real justice: A systematic review of police officers' rape myth beliefs (2017) · cites this paper as Rich and Seffrin (2013)
Gender was less significant than sexual assault training.
“Female officers used victim advocates more extensively that their male colleagues, which resulted in better statements.Although gender was less significant than sexual assault training.”
From From 'real rape' to real justice: A systematic review of police officers' rape myth beliefs (2017) · cites this paper as Rich and Seffrin (2013)
Cites
Stop Blaming the Victim: A Meta-Analysis on Rape Myths
Suarez, E. B., & Gadalla, T. M. (2010) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260509354503 · Cited by 869 · see citing works
Being Silenced: The Impact of Negative Social Reactions on the Disclosure of Rape
Ahrens, C. E. (2006) · American Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10464-006-9069-9 · Cited by 567 · see citing works
Campbell, R. (2006) · Violence Against Women · doi:10.1177/1077801205277539 · Cited by 381 · see citing works
Talking about sexual assault: Society's response to survivors.
Ullman, S. E. (2010) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/12083-000 · Cited by 374 · see citing works
Deciding Whom to Tell: Expectations and Outcomes of Rape Survivors' First Disclosures
Ahrens, C. E., Campbell, R., Ternier-Thames, N. K., Wasco, S. M., & Sefl, T. (2007) · Psychology of Women Quarterly · doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2007.00329.x · Cited by 349 · see citing works
The Factors Related to Rape Reporting Behavior and Arrest
Bachman, R. D. (1998) · Criminal Justice and Behavior · doi:10.1177/0093854898025001002 · Cited by 333 · see citing works
Maier, S. L. (2008) · Violence Against Women · doi:10.1177/1077801208320245 · Cited by 250 · see citing works
DeMaris, A. (2004) · Wiley series in probability and statistics · doi:10.1002/0471677566 · Cited by 241 · see citing works
Understanding Rape Survivors' Decisions Not to Seek Help from Formal Social Systems
Patterson, D., Greeson, M. R., & Campbell, R. (2009) · Health & Social Work · doi:10.1093/hsw/34.2.127 · Cited by 215 · see citing works
Secondary Traumatic Stress Among Domestic Violence Advocates: Workplace Risk and Protective Factors
Slattery, S. M., & Goodman, L. A. (2009) · Violence against Women · doi:10.1177/1077801209347469 · Cited by 201 · see citing works
The Linkage Between Secondary Victimization by Law Enforcement and Rape Case Outcomes
Patterson, D. (2011) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260510362889 · Cited by 165 · cited 2× · see citing works
“This can have significant implications for prosecution: In one study (Patterson, 2011), negative detective behaviors toward rape reporters were related to poor case outcomes; in another (Maddox et al., 2011), rape reporters who found detectives empathetic were more likely to have their cases go to…”
BackgroundWorlds Apart? Women, Rape and the Police Reporting Process
Jordan, J. (2001) · The British Journal of Criminology · doi:10.1093/bjc/41.4.679 · Cited by 158 · see citing works
Rape Work: Victims, Gender, and Emotions in Organization and Community Context
Martin, P. Y. (2005) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 158 · see citing works
Campbell, R. (2005) · Violence and Victims · doi:10.1891/vivi.2005.20.1.55 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
Barriers to Working With Sexual Assault Survivors
Ullman, S. E., & Townsend, S. M. (2007) · Violence Against Women · doi:10.1177/1077801207299191 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
The impact of criminal justice involvement on victims' mental health
Parsons, J., & Bergin, T. (2010) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.20505 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
Police Training in Sexual Assault Response: Process, Outcomes, and Elements of Change
Lonsway, K. A., Welch, S., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (2001) · Criminal Justice and Behavior · doi:10.1177/009385480102800602 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Police empathy and victim PTSD as potential factors in rape case attrition
Maddox, L., Lee, D., & Barker, C. (2011) · Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology · doi:10.1007/s11896-010-9075-6 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Interviewing Victims of Crime, Including Children and People with Intellectual Disabilities
Milne, B., & Bull, R. (2006) · doi:10.1002/9780470713389.ch1 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Police interviews of sexual assault reporters: Do attitudes matter?
Rich, K., & Seffrin, P. (2012) · Violence and Victims · doi:10.1891/0886-6708.27.2.263 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Self-citationEmotional Reactions of Rape Victim Advocates: A Multiple Case Study of Anger and Fear
Wasco, S. M., & Campbell, R. (2002) · Psychology of Women Quarterly · doi:10.1111/1471-6402.00050 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Gender difference or indifference? Detective decision making in sexual assault cases
Alderden, M. A., & Ullman, S. E. (2012) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260511416465 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Predicting Women's Perceptions of Domestic Violence and Sexual Assault Agency Helpfulness
Zweig, J. M., & Burt, M. R. (2007) · Violence Against Women · doi:10.1177/1077801207307799 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Peritraumatic Responses and Their Relationship to Perceptions of Threat in Female Crime Victims
Kaysen, D. L., Morris, M. K., Rizvi, S. L., & Resick, P. A. (2005) · Violence Against Women · doi:10.1177/1077801205280931 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Police Perceptions of Sexual Assault Victims
Wentz, E. A., & Archbold, C. A. (2012) · Police Quarterly · doi:10.1177/1098611111432843 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Gender differences in police officers attitudes towards rape; Results of an exploratory study
Brown, J. M., & King, J. (1998) · Psychology Crime and Law · doi:10.1080/10683169808401760 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Maintaining Separate Spheres in Policing: Women on SWAT Teams
Dodge, M., Valcore, L., & KLINGER, D. A. (2010) · Women & Criminal Justice · doi:10.1080/08974454.2010.490476 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Sudderth, L. K. (2006) · Feminist Criminology · doi:10.1177/1557085106293674 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Services for Sexual Assault Survivors: The Role of Rape Crisis Centers
Campbell, R., & Martin, P. Y. (2002) · Sage eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781452229454.n21 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
The criminal justice and community response to rape
Epstein, J. C., & Langenbahn, S. (1994) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Hardy, A., Young, K., & Holmes, E. A. (2009) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658210903081835 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Sexual Assault Victim Advocates in Virginia: Challenges Faced in the Field
Carmody, D. C. (2006) · Journal of Health and Human Services Administration · doi:10.1177/107937390602900202 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
(1994) · Psychology of Women Quarterly · doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1994.tb00302.x · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
1 of the 34 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Police perceptions of rape victims and the impact on case decision making: A systematic review
Sleath, E., & Bull, R. (2017) · Aggression and Violent Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.avb.2017.02.003 · Cited by 178 · see citing works
Secondary Victimization: Domestic Violence Survivors Navigating the Family Law System
Laing, L. (2016) · Violence Against Women · doi:10.1177/1077801216659942 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
From 'real rape' to real justice: A systematic review of police officers' rape myth beliefs
Parratt, K. A., & Pina, A. (2017) · Aggression and Violent Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.avb.2017.03.005 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Trauma-Informed Police Responses to Rape Victims
Rich, K. (2019) · Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma · doi:10.1080/10926771.2018.1540448 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Effect of Rape Myth Endorsement on Police Response to Sexual Assault Survivors
Garza, A. D., & Franklin, C. A. (2020) · Violence Against Women · doi:10.1177/1077801220911460 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Police social work and social service collaboration strategies one hundred years after Vollmer
Patterson, G. T., & Swan, P. G. (2019) · Policing An International Journal · doi:10.1108/pijpsm-06-2019-0097 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Societal Responses to Sexual Violence Against Women: Rape Myths and the “Real Rape” Stereotype
Krahé, B. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-08398-8_24 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Secondary traumatic stress among victim advocates: prevalence and correlates
Benuto, L., Newlands, R. T., Ruork, A., Hooft, S., & Ahrendt, A. (2018) · Journal of Evidence-Informed Social Work · doi:10.1080/23761407.2018.1474825 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Rape Crisis Victim Advocacy: A Systematic Review
Wegrzyn, A., Tull, P., Greeson, M. R., Pierre-Louis, C., Patton, E., & Shaw, J. (2023) · Trauma, Violence, & Abuse · doi:10.1177/15248380221082089 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Vulnerability and revictimization: Victim characteristics in a Dutch assault center
Zijlstra, E., Esselink, G., Moors, M. L., LoFoWong, S., Hutschemaekers, G. J. M., & Lagro-Janssen, A. L. M. (2017) · Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.jflm.2017.08.003 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Cho, H., Seon, J., Choi, G.-Y., An, S., Kwon, I., Choi, Y. J., Hong, S., Lee, J. O., Son, E., & Yun, S. H. (2020) · Advances in Social Work · doi:10.18060/23675 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Willingness to Report Sexual Offenses to the Police in Ghana
Boateng, F. D., & Lee, H. D. (2014) · Victims & Offenders · doi:10.1080/15564886.2014.907848 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Rape Victim Advocates Experiences With Law Enforcement in the Emergency Room
Long, L. (2017) · Feminist Criminology · doi:10.1177/1557085116687033 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Birds of a feather or fish out of water? Policewomen taking rape reports
Rich, K., & Seffrin, P. (2014) · Feminist Criminology · doi:10.1177/1557085113510551 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Self-citationWestera, N. J., Gentle, M., Powell, M. B., & Zajac, R. (2022) · Violence Against Women · doi:10.1177/10778012221120447 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Mandatory Sexual Assault Kit Testing Policies and Arrest Trends: A Natural Experiment
Mourtgos, S. M., Adams, I. T., Nix, J., & Richards, T. N. (2021) · Justice Evaluation Journal · doi:10.1080/24751979.2021.1881410 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
System-based victim advocates identify resources and barriers to supporting crime victims
Rue, L. D. L., Ortega, L., & Rodriguez, G. C. (2022) · International Review of Victimology · doi:10.1177/02697580221088340 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Ruiz, A. M., Moore, K. M., Woehrle, L. M., Kako, P. M., Davis, K. C., & Mkandawire‐Valhmu, L. (2023) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2023.116029 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Blaming victims of rape: Studies on rape myths and beliefs about rape
Adolfsson, K. (2018) · Gothenburg University Publications Electronic Archive (Gothenburg University) · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Trauma-Informed Systems of Care
Rich, K. L., & Garza, M. R. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-89999-2_293 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Self-citationAborisade, R. A., Adeleke, O. A., Urowoli, C. E., Muyideen, O. F., Chineyemba, L. I., Adegoke, N., & Adedayo, S. (2024) · Criminal Justice and Behavior · doi:10.1177/00938548241267249 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Atendimento a vítimas de violência sexual: revisão da literatura acerca do treinamento de policiais
Scarpati, A. S., & Koller, S. H. (2020) · Psico · doi:10.15448/1980-8623.2020.1.32435 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Weiss, B. R. (2020) · Theoretical Criminology · doi:10.1177/1362480620971784 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“There is No Time”: Swedish Professionals’ Perspective on Rape Victim Treatment
Raver, A., Landström, S., Adolfsson, K., & Strömwall, L. A. (2025) · Journal of Child Sexual Abuse · doi:10.1080/10538712.2025.2462920 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Wesely, J. K., & Dewey, S. C. (2022) · Homicide Studies · doi:10.1177/10887679221108327 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Content, C., & Fallik, S. W. (2025) · Criminal Justice and Behavior · doi:10.1177/00938548251327352 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Sexual Assault Response Team Goals and Motivations for Development
Wegrzyn, A., Greeson, M. R., & Rice, J. (2024) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/08862605241235913 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Best Practices for Addressing Rape: Police Collaboration with Victim Advocates
Rich, K. L. (2015) · doi:10.1201/b19746-21 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citationImproving the Police Response to Rape Victims: Persistent Challenges and New Directions
Rich, K. L. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-89999-2_199 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citationPolice, Academic, Professional, Community Collaboration: Past, Present, and Future
Kratcoski, P. C. (2015) · doi:10.1201/b19746-23 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
The Lethality Assessment Program: police coordinators’ experiences and perceptions
Dutton, L. B., & Tamborra, T. L. (2022) · Police Practice & Research · doi:10.1080/15614263.2022.2145288 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Addressing tent cities: an example of police/non-profit collaboration
Solensten, B., & Willits, D. W. (2019) · Policing An International Journal · doi:10.1108/pijpsm-04-2019-0045 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Ratajczak, K. (2024) · Journal of School Violence · doi:10.1080/15388220.2024.2335997 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Trauma-Informed Systems of Care
Rich, K. L., & Garza, M. R. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-62122-7_293-1 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationPolice, Academic, Professional, Community Collaboration: Past, Present, and Future
Kratcoski, P. C. (2015) · Advances in police theory and practice/Advances in police theory and practice series · doi:10.1201/b19746-18 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Richards, T. N. (2015) · The Encyclopedia of Crime and Punishment · doi:10.1002/9781118519639.wbecpx272 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The Criminal Justice System in Transition: Assisting Victims of Crime
Kratcoski, P. C. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-54349-9_3
Team Characteristics as Predictors of Collaboration on Sexual Assault Response Teams (SARTs)
Węgrzyn, A. (2019) · Digital Commons-DePaul (DePaul University)
Improving the Police Response to Rape Victims: Persistent Challenges and New Directions
Rich, K. L. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-62122-7_199-1
Self-citationKnox, K. S. (2012) · doi:10.1093/obo/9780195389678-0018
Best Practices for Addressing Rape: Police Collaboration with Victim Advocates
Rich, K. L. (2015) · Advances in police theory and practice/Advances in police theory and practice series · doi:10.1201/b19746-16
Self-citationAn Exploratory Analysis of Harassment in Adult Sexual Assault Cases
Bowen, K. N., Diamond, B., & Burns, R. G. (2022) · Violence and Victims · doi:10.1891/vv-2021-0037
The Criminal Justice System in Transition: Assisting Victims of Crime
Kratcoski, P. C. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-51741-9_3
Veronica Gonzalez, U. O. S. C. (2025) · doi:10.21428/88de04a1.85d93cd5
Cho, H., Allen, J., Nelson, A., & Gillis, K. (2025) · Journal of Social Work and Social Welfare Policy · doi:10.33790/jswwp1100145 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Li, L. (2026) · Violence Against Women · doi:10.1177/10778012261440264
- Authors
- Rich, K., & Seffrin, P.
- Affiliations
- Marywood University (US)
- ORCID
- Seffrin, Patrick
- Venue
- Violence and Victims
- Publisher
- Springer Publishing Company
- Published
- 2013
- Volume
- 28
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 681-696
- ISSN
- 0886-6708 (ISSN-L)
- 1945-7073
- OpenAlex
- W1976492374
- Cited by
- 47
- References
- 34
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 1 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 3 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 4 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 2 · 2015: 5 · 2014: 2 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 7.10
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Violence and Victims (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Sexual Assault and Victimization Studies
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Policing Practices and Perceptions
- Social Sciences › Health › Intimate Partner and Family Violence
- Keywords
- police officers, secondary victimization, rape myth acceptance, barriers and facilitators, police selection, rape reporting
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Communication Barriers, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Patient Advocacy, Rape, Police, Battered Women, Crime Victims, Professional Role, Young Adult
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review