From 'real rape' to real justice: A systematic review of police officers' rape myth beliefs

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Overall, all searches culminated in a total of 38 documents included for the review.

“Overall, all searches culminated a total of 38 documents included for the review.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Full screening reduced the pool of articles to 29.

“This reduced the pool of articles to 29.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Additional searches for 2015 yielded 3 results, and after duplicates one document was added, bringing the pool to 30.

“Additional searches were conducted using the same search terms and databases for 2015 which yielded 3 results.After checking for duplicates (n=2) only one document was added bringing up the pool to 30.”

May combine two claims.

The majority of studies were conducted in the USA, followed by the UK, with a small number in various other locations.

“The majority of studies were conducted in the USA, followed by the UK, with a small number of studies in various other locations.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Secondary screening reduced the number of articles to 38.

“Secondary screening based on the criteria laid out in the methods section, and also reading the title and abstract for each article reduced the number of articles to 38.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The highest quality score was 13, the lowest was 2, and the average score was 8.

“The highest scoring document achieved a score of 13 (see Table 2); the lowest, a score of 2 (see Table 4), and the average score was 8 (see Table 3).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The initial search identified 1484 documents after duplicates were removed.

“The initial search applying the primary and secondary inclusion criteria identified 1484 documents (after duplicates were removed).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The second search identified 239 documents (51 duplicates removed), and after applying criteria 10 documents remained, then 8 after reading abstracts/titles.

“The second search identified 239 (n=51 duplicates removed), but after applying the primary and secondary inclusion criteria, 10 documents remained.After reading the abstracts and title, the sample was further reduced to 8.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

This review is the first of its kind to systematically investigate police officers' rape myths in relation to a variety of attributes both internationally and nationally.

“This review is the first of its kind to systematically investigate police officers' rape myths in relation to a variety of attributes both internationally and nationally.”

May combine two claims.

Most studies failed to identify the race and ethnicity of participants; those that did, the majority identified their samples as being over 60% white.

“Most failed to identify the race and ethnicity of participants, and those that did, the majority identified their samples as being over 60% white.”

May combine two claims.

Seven documents were low quality, 14 were medium quality, and 17 were high quality.

“Seven documents fell within the low quality-scoring category, 14 fell into the medium quality-scoring category and 17 fell into the high quality-scoring category.”

May combine two claims.

After qualitative re-assessment, one document was low quality, six were medium quality, and one was high quality.

“One document fell within the low quality-scoring category, six fell into the medium quality-scoring category and one fell into the high quality-scoring category.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The documents varied greatly in standards.

“The documents varied greatly in standards, which is reflected in the scoring system to assess overall quality of each document.”

May combine two claims.

Perceived seriousness of the incident was related to more favourable victim ratings in interview content, and greater victim belief that the officer will make an arrest.

“Perceived seriousness of the incident related to more favourable victim ratings in interview content, and greater victim belief that the officer will make an arrest.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Beliefs that false reporting is prevalent, and real or serious rapes involve strangers, injury, and weapons, as opposed to acquaintances and incapacitated or under-the-influence victims.

“Beliefs that false reporting is prevalent, and real or serious rapes involve strangers, injury, and weapons, as opposed to acquaintances and incapacitated or under-the-influence victims.”

• cites Venema (2013)Not checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Officers who had more traditional beliefs of women tended to have stronger rape survivor myths, leading to greater rape supportive attitudes.

“Officers who had more traditional beliefs of women tended to have stronger rape survivor myths, leading to greater rape supportive attitudes.”

May combine two claims.

Perceived seriousness of the incident was related to increased perceived victim harm, identifying probable cause, and greater police belief that the suspect should be convicted.

“Perceived seriousness of the incident related to increased perceived victim harm, identifying probable cause, and greater police belief that the suspect should be convicted.”

May combine two claims.

In South Africa, officers placed responsibility on the male rape victim, believing that the victim should have been able to fend off the assault.

“In Hellmann (2005), a study conducted in South Africa, officers placed responsibility on the male rape victim, believing that the victim should have been able to fend off the assault.”

• cites Hellmann (2005)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Victim credibility was associated with perceived victim harm, incident seriousness, probable cause to arrest, and believing that the perpetrator should be prosecuted and convicted.

“Victim credibility associated with perceived victim harm, incident seriousness, probable cause to arrest, and believing that the perpetrator should be prosecuted and convicted.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Even though a victim did not fit officers' stereotype (shocked and emotional), they did not hold her any more responsible.

“Even though a victim did not fit officers' stereotype (shocked and emotional), they did not hold her anymore responsible.”

• cites Baldry (1996)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Five (27.78%) of the 18 documents highlighted a variety of beliefs/attitudes relating to rape.

“Five (27.78%) out of the 18 documents also highlighted a variety of beliefs/attitudes relating to rape, which are highlighted in Table 9.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Gender was less significant than sexual assault training.

“Female officers used victim advocates more extensively that their male colleagues, which resulted in better statements.Although gender was less significant than sexual assault training.”

• cites Rich and Seffrin (2013) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Knowledge gained deteriorates over time.

“Knowledge gained deteriorates over time.”

• cites Lonsway et al. (2001) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

This included officers of higher ranks with more experience in processing rape cases and dealing with victims.

“This included officers of higher ranks with more experience in processing rape cases and dealing with victims.”

May combine two claims.

Officers in integrated training less likely to mention victim intoxication, explain procedures for criminal prosecution and emphasize seriousness of offence.

“Officers in integrated training less likely to mention victim intoxication, explain procedures for criminal prosecution and emphasize seriousness of offence.”

• cites Lonsway (1996)Not checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Regardless of rank, years of experience, agency types, female officers were better adapted than male officers in interviewing suspects of rape.

“Regardless of rank, years of experience, agency types, female officers were better adapted than male officers in interviewing suspects of rape.”

May combine two claims.

Rape myth acceptance significantly predicted victim blame but not perpetrator blaming.

“Rape myth acceptance significantly predicted victim blame but not perpetrator blaming.”

• cites Sleath and Bull (2012) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Ten documents (55.56%) of the 18 documents focused on the influence of training on officers' beliefs regarding rape, finding mixed results.

“Ten documents (55.56%) of the 18 documents focused on the influence of training on officers' beliefs regarding rape, finding mixed results.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

After lecture on sexual assault training, there was no significant difference in the acceptance rates of negative myths regarding rape victims.

“After lecture on sexual assault training, there was no significant difference in the acceptance rates of negative myths regarding rape victims.”

• cites Muram et al. (1995) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Five of the documents (27.78%) analyzed officers' professional experience in relation to their beliefs of rape.

“Five of the documents (27.78%) analyzed officers' professional experience in relation to their beliefs of rape.”

May combine two claims.

Experimental training did not change levels of rape myths or knowledge of sexual assault investigations.

“Experimental training did not change levels of rape myths or knowledge of sexual assault investigations.”

• cites Lonsway et al. (2001) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Female officers showed more enthusiasm than male colleagues in working with victim advocates.

“Female officers showed more enthusiasm than male colleagues in working with victim advocates.”

• cites Rich and Seffrin (2014) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Female officers used victim advocates more extensively than their male colleagues, which resulted in better statements.

“Female officers used victim advocates more extensively that their male colleagues, which resulted in better statements.Although gender was less significant than sexual assault training.”

• cites Rich and Seffrin (2013) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Training has mixed results, whereby it may change behavior but not necessarily officers' beliefs.

“It can be seen that training has mixed results, whereby it may change behavior but not necessarily officers' beliefs.”

May combine two claims.

Training was found to be associated with possible benefits such as an increased likelihood of including victim advocates when taking rape complaints, and advanced interviewing skills.

“Training was found to be associated with possible benefits such as an increased likelihood of including victim advocates when taking rape complaints, and advanced interviewing skills.”

May combine two claims.

Experimental (specialized) training had no effect on rape myths, or sexual assault knowledge compared to baseline curriculum.

“Experimental (specialized) training had no effect on rape myths, or sexual assault knowledge compared to baseline curriculum.”

• cites Lonsway (1996)Not checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

In terms of beliefs of rape, even though training appeared to influence behavior, it failed to alter officers' attitudes.

“However, in terms of beliefs of rape, even though training appeared to influence behavior, it failed to alter officers' attitudes, and even when officers outperformed in simulated interviews after training, the knowledge they gained deteriorated over time, and had no eventual influence on victim blaming.”

May combine two claims.

Recruits who performed in experimental training did not change in attitudinal or cognitive variables, however they outperformed in the simulated sexual assault interview.

“Recruits who performed in experimental training did not change in attitudinal or cognitive variables, however they outperformed in the simulated sexual assault interview.”

• cites Lonsway et al. (2001) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Significant increase in sexual assault knowledge and less skeptical of women following completion of general curriculum training.

“Significant increase in sexual assault knowledge and less skeptical of women following completion of general curriculum training.”

• cites Lonsway (1996)Not checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Officers who knew victims personally were more likely to collaborate with advocates in rape cases.

“Officers who knew victims personally were more likely to collaborate with advocates in rape cases.”

May combine two claims.

Officers in experimental training more likely to communicate victim credibility, better questioning, perform more favorably, and describe the offence as rape and more serious than baseline curriculum.

“Officers in experimental training more likely to communicate victim credibility, better questioning, perform more favorably, and describe the offence as rape and more serious than baseline curriculum.”

• cites Lonsway (1996)Not checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Large disagreement between officers in same department on whether training for dealing with rape cases was offered and frequency.

“Large disagreement between officers in same department on whether training for dealing with rape cases was offered and frequency.”

• cites Page (2008a)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The quote only partly states this claim.

There was no significant effect for victim blaming by gender role.

“No significant effect for victim blaming.”

• cites Sleath and Bull (2012) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Professional characteristics covered elements related to the profession of being a police officer, such as training, experience, education, resources, and police subculture.

“Professional characteristics covered elements that were related to the profession of being a police officer, such as training, experience (years of service, and processing rape cases), education, resources, and police subculture.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Training had a positive influence in relation to police work in that training was a bigger influence over interviewing skills (more so than general education).

“Training had a positive influence in relation to police work in that training was a bigger influence over interviewing skills (more so than general education).”

• cites Rich and Seffrin (2012) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The majority of police officers felt that resources have no influence on their decision to pursue a rape case.

“In Page (2008a), the majority of police officers felt that resources have no influence on their decision to pursue a rape case (Page, 2008a).”

• cites Page, 2008aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Knowing a victim personally appears to result in officers collaborating with advocates of rape cases and endorsing less rape myths.

“Knowing a victim personally appears to result in officers collaborating with advocates of rape cases and endorsing less rape myths.”

May combine two claims.

Officers with more experience and those who perceived their training to be helpful, and had a heightened awareness of sexual harassment in the workplace, also held more favourable attitudes towards women which predicted less victim-blaming perceptions of date rape.

“Officers with more experience and those who perceived their training to be helpful, and had a heightened awareness of sexual harassment in the workplace, also held more favourable attitudes towards women which predicted less victim-blaming perceptions of date rape.”

• cites Lonsway (1996)Not checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Such factors were found to be inter-related, further affecting officers' beliefs of rape.

“Such factors were found to be inter-related, further affecting officers' beliefs of rape.”

May combine two claims.

Officers who were of higher ranks, with more years of experience appeared to be better at interviewing rape victims, and endorsed less rape myths than officers who had attended sexual assault training sessions.

“Officers who were of higher ranks, with more years of experience appeared to be better at interviewing rape victims, and endorsed less rape myths than officers who had attended sexual assault training sessions.”

• cites Rich and Seffrin (2012, 2013)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Female officers report knowing more rape victims personally.

“Female officers report knowing more rape victims personally.”

• cites Rich and Seffrin (2012) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

70% of the sample stated that there were not written guidelines on which rape investigation to pursue.

“Page (2008a) also found that 90% of officers felt at that they did not have individual discretion over pursuing rape cases, and 70% of their sample stated that there were not written guidelines on which rape investigation to pursue.”

• cites Page, 2008aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Female officers were more likely to report negative remarks about rape victims in their department than men and this, in turn, was related to them seeking sexual assault training.

“In addition, female officers were more likely to report negative remarks about rape victims in their department than men and this, in turn, was related to them seeking sexual assault training.”

May combine two claims.

Older and more experienced officers were more likely to expect some professional contact with a rape victim over the course of the coming year, report having more experience of law enforcement, and have more contact with sexual assault victims.

“Older and more experienced officers were more likely to expect some professional contact with a rape victim over the course of the coming year, report having more experience of law enforcement, and have more contact with sexual assault victims.”

May combine two claims.

It is unclear, based on the findings of the review, as to whether any specific factors have greater influence over officers' beliefs than others, and to what extent they affect their behavior when interacting with victims.

“Ultimately, it is unclear, based on the findings of the review, as to whether any specific factors have greater influence over officers' beliefs than others, and to what extent they affect their behavior when interacting with victims.”

May combine two claims.

Male officers are more likely to perceive an intoxicated victim as more to blame and less credible than female officers.

“With regards to intoxication, male officers are more likely to perceive an intoxicated victim as more to blame and less credible than female officers.”

May combine two claims.

Knowing a victim personally was related to officers participating in sexual assault training, less likely to endorse rape myths, and include Crime Victim Advocates.

“Studies also highlighted that knowing a victim personally was related to officers participating in sexual assault training, less likely to endorse rape myths, and include Crime Victim Advocates.”

May combine two claims.

Sexual assault training was related to possibly some variety of benefits for officers' skills but not rape beliefs including rape myths and victim blaming.

“Regarding professional elements, studies indicated that sexual assault training was related to possibly some variety of benefits for officers' skills but not rape beliefs including rape myths and victim blaming.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

77% of officers felt that their department did not provide guidelines for rape investigations.

“Lastly, 77% of officers felt that their department did not provide guidelines for rape investigations.”

• cites Page, 2008aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Police officers with lower levels of education and less experience of rape investigations were also more accepting of rape myths.

“In addition, police officers with lower levels of education and less experience of rape investigations were also more accepting of rape myths.”

May combine two claims.

An increase of years of experience, higher ranks and experience of rape case processing resulted in a decrease of rape myths and negative attitudes.

“In addition, an increase of years of experience, higher ranks and experience of rape case processing resulted in a decrease of rape myths and negative attitudes.”

May combine two claims.

Two documents (11.11%) examined education in relation to officers' beliefs of rape, finding that education has an overall positive effect; in that officers with a higher education are less likely to endorse rape myths.

“Two documents (11.11%) examined education in relation to officers' beliefs of rape, finding that education has an overall positive effect; in that officers with a higher education are less likely to endorse rape myths (Page, 2007;Page, 2008b).”

• cites Page, 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Page, 2008bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Female officers find training to be more useful and show greater appreciation for it than their male colleagues.

“Specifically, regarding gender, some of the articles highlighted that female officers find training to be more useful and show greater appreciation for it than their male colleagues, and blame perpetrators more than male officers (Rich & Seffrin, 2012, 2013, 2014).”

• cites Rich & Seffrin, 2012, 2013, 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Female officers appeared to benefit more from sexual assault training than their male counterparts, which led to other benefits, such as finding the training more useful, an increased likelihood to include victim advocates in investigations; no such benefits were found in male officers.

“Specifically, female officers appeared to benefit more from sexual assault training than their male counterparts, which led to other benefits, such as finding the training more useful, an increased likelihood to include victim advocates in investigations; no such benefits were found in male officers.”

May combine two claims.

The majority of the research highlighted that officers' attitudes towards rape are influenced by a vast array of elements, which can vary from case to case and officer to officer; specifically, personal, professional, and victim/crime scene factors.

“Overall, the majority of the research highlighted that officers' attitudes towards rape are influenced by a vast array of elements, which can vary from case to case and officer to officer; specifically, personal, professional, and victim/crime scene factors.”

May combine two claims.

Knowing rape victims personally increases participation in sexual assault training and inclusion of Crime Victim Advocates in victim interviews and reporting of negative comments in department.

“Knowing rape victims personally increases participation in sexual assault training and inclusion of Crime Victim Advocates in victim interviews and reporting of negative comments in department.”

May combine two claims.

Alcohol intoxication was also related to officers perceiving the case as less legitimate, false and more ambiguous.

“Similarly, alcohol intoxication was also related to officers perceiving the case as less legitimate, false and more ambiguous.”

May combine two claims.

Traditionalism and sexism were also found to lead to endorsement of rape myths, with gender roles also predicting perpetrator blaming (but not victim).

“Traditionalism and sexism were also found to lead to endorsement of rape myths, with gender roles also predicting perpetrator blaming (but not victim).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Knowing victims personally, less rape myths than officers who do not and those who do not less likely to participate in training.

“Knowing victims' personally, less rape myths than officers who do not and those who do not less likely to participate in training.”

May combine two claims.

A previous relationship leads officers to place more blame on the victim and less on the perpetrator, believing the case to be ambiguous or not legitimate.

“Specifically, a previous relationship leads officers to place more blame on the victim and less on the perpetrator, believing the case to be ambiguous or not legitimate.”

May combine two claims.

Police officers with lower levels of educational attainment and less experience of rape investigations were more accepting of rape myths.

“Police officers with lower levels of educational attainment and less experience of rape investigations were more accepting of rape myths.”

• cites Page (2007) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Religious beliefs and affiliation, and ethnicity have not been examined in detail in past literature.

“Furthermore, religious beliefs and affiliation, and ethnicity have not been examined in detail in past literature.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The effectiveness of training is influenced by a variety of different factors that need to be highlighted during training and throughout the officers' time in service.

“As shown in this review, the effectiveness of training is influenced by a variety of different factors that need to be highlighted during training and throughout the officers' time in service.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

It is unclear whether specific factors have greater influence over beliefs.

“Unclear whether specific factors have greater influence over beliefs.”

May combine two claims.

There is a lack of consistency in the definition of rape myths, meaning that research lacks a comprehensive articulation of rape myths.

“There is a lack of consistency in the definition of rape myths, meaning that research lacks a comprehensive articulation of rape myths (Lonsway & Fitzgerald, 1994).”

• cites Lonsway & Fitzgerald, 1994 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Other inter-related factors were also highlighted such as sexism and educational level, with the higher the education of the officer, the less likely they were to endorse ideologies that reflected modern sexism.

“Other inter-related factors were also highlighted such as sexism and educational level, with the higher the education of the officer, the less likely they were to endorse ideologies that reflected modern sexism.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Whether the effects of interventions will be long lasting is still unknown.

“and even in doing so, whether the effects of the interventions will be long lasting is still unknown.”

May combine two claims.

Authors often propose their own list of items to measure rape myths which are similar in nature but do not necessarily overlap, and their origins are unclear.

“Specifically, authors often propose their own list of items to measure rape myths which are similar in nature but do not necessarily overlap, and their origins are unclear (Lonsway & Fitzgerald, 1994).”

• cites Lonsway & Fitzgerald, 1994 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Officers who indicated higher endorsement of rape myths were likely to perceive a rape victim as less credible, more responsible, and less likely to communicate non-consent.

“Considering previous research on the purpose of rape myths, officers who indicated higher endorsement of rape myths were likely to perceive a rape victim as less credible, more responsible, and less likely to communicate non-consent, therefore alleviating guilt from the perpetrator, and less likely to recommend that the perpetrator be charged.”

May combine two claims.

Research tends to rely on white male officers, thus limiting its applicability to other ethnicities, genders and cultures.

“Secondly, research tends to rely on white male officers, thus limiting its applicability to other ethnicities, genders and cultures.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Officers' attitudes towards rape are influenced by a vast array of elements.

“Officers' attitudes towards rape are influenced by a vast array of elements.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Factors can interact with each other in influencing officers' beliefs.

“Factors can interact with each other in influencing officers' beliefs.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Low and medium scoring studies were excluded from further analyses; only high-quality articles were included.

“Low scoring and medium scoring studies will be excluded from any further analyses as it is essential that only high quality articles are included in the review.”

May combine two claims.

Victims report dissatisfaction when reporting to the police, finding officers too lenient on the perpetrator and lacking sensitivity, especially when victim and perpetrator are acquaintances rather than strangers.

“Despite such implementations, victims report dissatisfaction when reporting to the police, finding that officers are too lenient on the perpetrator, and lack sensitivity especially when the victim and perpetrator are acquaintances, not complete strangers (Felson & Pare, 2008).”

• cites Felson & Pare, 2008 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Rape is a sensitive and controversial topic and may cause some officers to give biased answers in face-to-face interviews.

“Rape is considered a sensitive and controversial topic; therefore, it may cause some officers to give biased answers in face to face interviews (Campbell, 1995).”

• cites Campbell, 1995 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Male rape research is still considered to be approximately twenty years behind that of female rape.

“however it is still considered to be approximately twenty years behind that of female rape (Rogers, 1998;Sleath & Bull, 2012).”

• cites Rogers, 1998Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Sleath & Bull, 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Rape myths serve a similar function to just world beliefs, thereby blaming the victim for their own victimization.

“which was theorized to be serving a similar function to that of just world beliefs (Lerner, 1980), thus blaming the victim for their own victimization (Ryan, 1976).”

• cites Lerner, 1980 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Ryan, 1976Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The factors that directly influence police officers' rape myths and the implications these may have on rape victims' experiences when reporting to the police remain unclear.

“meaning that the factors that directly influence police officers' rape myths and the implications these may have on rape victims' experiences when reporting to the police remain unclear.”

May combine two claims.

Rape myths serve functions including blaming the victim, exonerating the perpetrator, implying the victim is lying or to blame, and justifying acquaintance rape.

“Rape myths serve many purposes, including blaming the victim whilst exonerating the perpetrator from responsibility (Anderson, 1999), implying that the victim is lying about the offence (Cuklanz, 2000;Grubb & Turner, 2012) or is to blame (Scully, 1990), and providing justifications for acquaintance rape (Johnson, Kuck, & Schander, 1997).”

• cites Anderson, 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Cuklanz, 2000Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Grubb & Turner, 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Rape myths deny the possibility of males also being victims of rape.

“By conceptualizing males as perpetrators and females as victims, these myths could be seen as denying the possibility of males also being victims of rape (Newburn & Stanko, 1994).”

• cites Newburn & Stanko, 1994Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Rape myths have a significant impact on how victims of rape are perceived, how they are treated, and the dissemination of a cultural acceptance of rape and a rape-supportive society.

“Therefore, such beliefs have been suggested by Grubb and Turner (2012) to have a significant impact on: 1) how victims of rape are perceived, 2) how victims of rape are treated, and 3) the dissemination of a cultural acceptance of rape and a rape-supportive society.”

• cites Grubb & Turner, 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The IRMAS consists of 40 rape myth items, including five filler items designed to reduce the effects of response set.

“the IRMAS (Payne et al., 1999) was one of the most implemented measures within these documents, and consists of 40 rape myth items, including five filler items designed to reduce the effects of response set (Sleath & Bull, 2012).”

• cites Payne et al., 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Sleath & Bull, 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Several other double-barreled items in the original scale were either separated into individual items or shortened.

“Several other doublebarreled items in the original scale were either separated into individual items or shortened.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

McMahon and Farmer developed the Subtle Rape Myth Acceptance Scale, a revised IRMA, to eliminate potential bias or strong language and replace it with more common vernacular.

“McMahon and Farmer (2011) developed a slightly revised version of the IRMA, because of concerns about the language used in the IRMA; the Subtle Rape Myth Acceptance Scale (McMahon & Farmer, 2011), and it is thought to eliminate potential bias or strong language (e.g.caught having an illicit affair) and replaced it with more common vernacular (e.g.caught cheating) (Venema, 2013).”

• cites McMahon & Farmer, 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Venema, 2013Not checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Rape myths serve to support sexual violence against women by men.

“This is logical considering that rape myths serve to support sexual violence against women by men (Brownmiller, 1975;Schwendinger & Schwendinger, 1974), which supports the notion that women should be subordinate to male domination (Lee et al., 2012).”

• cites Brownmiller, 1975Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Schwendinger & Schwendinger, 1974Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Rape myths support the notion that women should be subordinate to male domination.

“This is logical considering that rape myths serve to support sexual violence against women by men (Brownmiller, 1975;Schwendinger & Schwendinger, 1974), which supports the notion that women should be subordinate to male domination (Lee et al., 2012).”

• cites Lee et al., 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

There may be inconsistencies in the type of training provided to officers, or in the ability of the training to bring about a more permanent change in attitudes or beliefs.

“As can be seen (in Table 11), sexual assault training does not incur consistent results in terms of its ability to alter officers' beliefs of rape, suggesting that there may be inconsistencies in the type of training provided to officers, or in the ability of the training to bring about a more permanent change in attitudes or beliefs.”

May combine two claims.

Male officers are unlikely to notice negative comments about rape, but at the same time are influenced by other factors brought by them to the crime scene and victim.

“In sum, this suggests that male officers are unlikely to notice negative comments about rape, but at the same time are influenced by other factors brought by them to the crime scene and victim.”

May combine two claims.

These findings come from the same police population, but are presented in three separate documents (Rich & Seffrin, 2012, 2013, 2014).

“However, it is important to highlight that these findings come from the same police population, but are presented in three separate documents (i.e.Rich & Seffrin, 2012, 2013, 2014).”

• cites Rich & Seffrin, 2012, 2013, 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

It may be that women naturally know more rape victims, regardless of whether they are an officer or not.

“Therefore, it may be that women naturally know more rape victims, regardless of whether they are an officer or not.”

May combine two claims.

It can be argued that training has a positive effect on female officers but less so on male officers.

“It can, therefore, be argued that training has a positive effect on female officers but less so on male officers.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Officers may have been more dishonest than other groups and led to think they have to answer in a 'politically correct' way.

“resulting in them being more dishonest than other groups and leading them to think they have to answer in a 'politically correct' way (Campbell, 1995).”

• cites Campbell, 1995 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

In some cultures, specifically for Hispanic Catholics, females are expected to protect their virginity at all costs and failing to do so will dishonor their family.

“Furthermore, religion and ethnicity considerably overlap and in some cultures, specifically for Hispanic Catholics, females are expected to protect their virginity at all costs and failing to do so will dishonor their family (Lira, Koss, & Russo, 1999).”

• cites Lira, Koss, & Russo, 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Heterosexual men appear to endorse more rape myths than women or gay men.

“Specifically, heterosexual men appear to endorse more rape myths than women or gay men, and gay men make more pro-victim judgements overall (Davies & McCartney, 2003).”

• cites Davies & McCartney, 2003 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

What cannot be controlled are the specifics that are often brought to the case, such as the victim and crime scene variables, which, until officers encounter each unique case, remain unknown.

“What cannot be controlled are the specifics that are often brought to the case, such as the victim and crime scene variables, which, until officers encounter each unique case, remain unknown.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

As females are suggested to be better at emphasizing with female rape victims, Sleath (2011) suggests that this may explain why female officers could reject rape myths compared to male officers.

“As females are suggested to be better at emphasizing with female rape victims (Mitchell, Hirschman, & Nagayama Hall, 1999), Sleath (2011) suggests that this may explain why female officers could reject rape myths compared to male officers.”

• cites Mitchell, Hirschman, & Nagayama Hall, 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Sleath, 2011Not checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Including articles that are not legally comparable is particularly problematic, especially when applying international research to the United Kingdom and the legal definition of what constitutes rape.

“Including articles that are not legally comparable is particularly problematic, especially when applying international research to the United Kingdom and the legal definition of what constitutes rape.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Gay men make more pro-victim judgements overall than heterosexual men.

“Specifically, heterosexual men appear to endorse more rape myths than women or gay men, and gay men make more pro-victim judgements overall (Davies & McCartney, 2003).”

• cites Davies & McCartney, 2003 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Officers may have felt obliged to portray the police service in a positive light, which could have influenced their responses.

“officers may have felt obliged to portray the police service in a positive light which in turn could have influenced their responses”

• cites Page, 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Rich & Seffrin, 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Self-report scales operationalizing the term 'rape myths' may have missed out the subtle nuances that a qualitative interview may capture.

“Page (2008a) also highlights that self-report scales operationalizing the term 'rape myths' may have missed out the subtle nuances that a qualitative interview may capture.”

• cites Page (2008a)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.