The production of p-cresol sulfate and indoxyl sulfate in vegetarians versus omnivores
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BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The uremic solutes p-cresol sulfate (PCS) and indoxyl sulfate (IS) are generated by colon bacteria acting on food components that escape absorption in the small bowel. The production of these potentially toxic compounds may thus be influenced by diet. This study examined whether production of PCS and IS is different in vegetarians and omnivores. DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS, & MEASUREMENTS: The production of PCS and IS was assessed by measuring their urinary excretion rates in participants with normal kidney function. Studies were carried out in 15 vegetarians and 11 individuals consuming an unrestricted diet. Participants recorded food intake over 4 days and collected urine over the final 2 days of each of two study periods, which were 1 month apart. RESULTS: Average PCS excretion was 62% lower (95% confidence interval [95% CI], 15-83) and average IS excretion was 58% lower (95% CI, 39-71) in vegetarians than in participants consuming an unrestricted diet. Food records revealed that lower excretion of PCS and IS in vegetarians was associated with a 69% higher (95% CI, 20-139) fiber intake and a 25% lower (95% CI, 3-42) protein intake. PCS and IS excretion rates varied widely among individual participants and were not closely correlated with each other but tended to remain stable in individual participants over 1 month. CONCLUSIONS: PCS and IS production rates are markedly lower in vegetarians than in individuals consuming an unrestricted diet.
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A reduced excretion of faecal phenols was observed after a 3-week high-resistant starch diet, and lower production of p-cresol sulfate and indoxyl sulfate was found in vegetarians.
“Accordingly, a reduced excretion of faecal phenols was observed following a 3-week high-resistant starch diet, 59 while a significantly lower production of p-cresol sulfate and indoxyl sulfate were found in vegetarians.60”
From High-level adherence to a Mediterranean diet beneficially impacts the gut microbiota and associated metabolome (2016) · cites this paper as [60]
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- Authors
- Patel, K. P., Luo, F. J.-G., Plummer, N. S., Hostetter, T. H., & Meyer, T. W.
- Affiliations
- VA Palo Alto Health Care System (US)
- Case Western Reserve University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Patel, Kajal P.
- Luo, Frank J.-G.
- Plummer, Natalie S.
- Meyer, Timothy W.
- Venue
- Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology
- Published
- 2012-06
- Volume
- 7
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 982-988
- ISSN
- 1555-9041 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3362314
- OpenAlex
- W2154905690
- Cited by
- 226
- References
- 35
- Citations by year
- 2026: 17 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 12 · 2022: 21 · 2021: 25 · 2020: 18 · 2019: 18 · 2018: 15 · 2017: 16 · 2016: 15 · 2015: 21 · 2014: 8 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 10.90
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health
- National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (R01DK080123, R01 DK80123)
- National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (R21AT005123)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Nephrology › Dialysis and Renal Disease Management
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutritional Studies and Diet
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Gut microbiota and health
- Keywords
- p-cresyl sulfate, indoxyl sulfate, uremic solutes, vegetarians, omnivores, dietary fiber, dietary protein, urinary excretion
- MeSH terms
- Adult, California, Cresols, Digestion, Female, Humans, Indican, Kidney, Male, Meat, Middle Aged, Sulfuric Acid Esters, Time Factors, Diet, Vegetarian, Biomarkers, Diet Records
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