Cited by 10Populism, Right-Wing MovementsMisinformation and Its ImpactsSocial Media and Politics

Populismo, desinformación y polarización política en la comunicación en redes sociales de los presidentes populistas latinoamericanos

Open access
Rivera Magos, Sergio, González Pureco, Gabriela·2024·Revista Mexicana de Opinión Pública

Abstract

This article presents the results of research that examines the interplay between populism, misinformation, and polarization in the communication of five Latin American political leaders identified as populists: Alberto Fernández (Argentina), Luis Arce (Bolivia), Andrés Manuel López Obrador (Mexico), Gustavo Petro (Colombia), and Nayib Bukele (El Salvador). Using a methodology that combines data extraction from social media with content analysis, the populist narratives, misinformation strategies, and polarizing effects present in the communication of these leaders were analyzed. The findings reveal the constant and significant presence of populism in the communication of these leaders, characterized by references to the "virtuous people" and the "general will," as well as the recurrent use of the dichotomy "us" and "them." Furthermore, it is identified that misinformation is a significant feature in the communication of these leaders, representing more than 50% of their content. This includes the use of deceptive content, false connections, and hate speech, often employed to validate and disseminate false information that supports the populist narrative. Polarization emerges as a dominant trend in the communication of these leaders, characterized by the constant use of terms like "they" and "we," as well as the expression of political emotions such as justice, joy, or anger.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

The paper analyzes populism, misinformation, and polarization in the Twitter/Facebook communication of five Latin American presidents (Alberto Fernández, Luis Arce, AMLO, Gustavo Petro, Nayib Bukele) using 125 top-engagement posts from July 1–August 31, 2023. It finds these elements are widespread and often co-occur, with AMLO showing the highest levels and Bukele the lowest in the sample.

Key findings

  • Across 125 posts, populist elements appeared in 75%, misinformation in 51% (mainly misleading content, 27%), and polarization in 87% (mainly references to “nosotros,” 38.4%); the most frequent feelings were justice (32%) and joy (25%).
  • 47% of posts contained populism, misinformation, and polarization simultaneously; almost 70% of those were on Twitter. Among those posts, AMLO accounted for 33.9%, Fernández 23.7%, Petro 20.3%, Arce 18.6%, and Bukele 3.4%.
  • AMLO: populism 92%, polarization 92%, misinformation 80%, misleading content 68%, justice 44%, hope 32%. Fernández: populism 60%, misinformation 56%, polarization 64%, “ellos” 32%, misleading content 28%, justice 32%, anger 28%.
  • Petro: polarization 22%, populism 20%, misinformation 11%, external group 10%, justice 14%. Arce: populism 24%, misinformation 11%, polarization 24%, “nosotros” 14%, justice 11%. Bukele: populism 12%, misinformation 6%, polarization 24%, virtuous people/general will 8%, joy 22%, misleading content 5%.

Methods

  • Comparative content analysis of official Twitter and Facebook posts by five presidents identified as populist: Alberto Fernández (Argentina), Luis Arce (Bolivia), AMLO (Mexico), Gustavo Petro (Colombia), and Nayib Bukele (El Salvador).
  • Case selection used demographic and political factors plus The Economist Democracy Index 2023: Argentina and Colombia as flawed democracies; Mexico, El Salvador, and Bolivia as hybrid regimes.
  • Data: top-engagement posts from July 1 to August 31, 2023, extracted with Fanpage Karma; 25 posts per president from both official accounts, totaling 125 posts. Posts were coded with a codebook for populism (us/them, moral discourse, virtuous people/general will), misinformation (false connection, misleading, manipulated, fabricated content, harassment, hate speech; EU model), and polarization (ingroup/outgroup, affective attitudes/emotions including justice), then compared across cases.

Limitations

  • Stated in the paper: omitting measurement of user reactions and comments is a major deficit because online interaction could indicate the effectiveness and influence of populist and misinformation narratives.
  • Stated in the paper: the sample is not fully representative of regional diversity, and the lack of application to specific political events limits contextualization; future work should use broader samples of posts, leaders, regions, and common political events such as elections or government reports.
  • Evident from the text: the analysis covers only 125 top-engagement posts over a two-month window for five presidents, so findings are limited to that sample and period and measure message content rather than audience response or causal effects.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.22201/fcpys.24484911e.2024.36.86828

Cites

32 of 32 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

4 of 23 cited sources checked · 2 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    La polarización es una consecuencia directa de la estrategia polarizadora adoptada por los líderes populistas.

    “La polarización, por su parte, es una consecuencia directa de la estrategia polarizadora adoptada por los líderes populistas (Monsiváis-Carrillo, 2023;Naím, 2022;Rebollo-Bueno y Ferreira, 2023).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Monsiváis-Carrillo, 2023 source
    • cites Naím, 2022

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Rebollo-Bueno y Ferreira, 2023

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Premisecitation

    La visión maniquea de la política de Andrés Manuel López Obrador le ha llevado a utilizar la desinformación como arma para desacreditar a sus críticos y adversarios políticos.

    “Esta visión maniquea de la política le ha llevado a utilizar la desinformación como arma para desacreditar a sus críticos y adversarios políticos (Monsiváis-Carrillo, 2023).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Monsiváis-Carrillo, 2023 source
  • Findingown data

    Of the publications containing all three, almost 70% were from Twitter.

    “En total el 47% de las publicaciones contienen a la vez populismo, desinformación y polarización, de las cuales casi el 70% fue de Twitter.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The most recurrent sentiment in Petro's communication is justice (14%).

    “El sentimiento más recurrente es de justicia (14%).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The 25 most-engaged posts per president per platform are representative of each president's overall social media communication during the period.
    • Rests on an assumption: The period from July 1 to August 31, 2023 is representative of the presidents' general communication strategies.
  • Findingown data

    87% of the publications present some type of polarization.

    “El 51% de las publicaciones contienen desinformación, principalmente contenido engañoso (27%) y el 87% presenta algún tipo de polarización, siendo la referencia al grupo de pertenencia “nosotros” las más frecuente (38.4%).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 44
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 13
  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    El populismo, la desinformación y la polarización están intrínsecamente conectados y se retroalimentan mutuamente.

    “Estos tres elementos están intrínsecamente conectados y se retroalimentan mutuamente, lo que contribuye a la complejidad de entender cómo funcionan en conjunto.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Monsiváis-Carrillo, 2023 source

      La sección 2, «Populismo, desinformación e integridad electoral» (sin página indicada), relaciona los tres elementos: describe el discurso polarizador de los políticos populistas y su recurso a la desinformación. Sin embargo, no afirma que estén intrínsecamente conectados ni que se retroalimenten mutuamente. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Naím, 2022

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Rebollo-Bueno y Ferreira, 2023

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Social media favor the proliferation of populism, disinformation and polarization.

    “Dada la centralidad de las redes sociales en la comunicación política contemporánea, y la literatura que sustenta que éstas favorecen la proliferación de populismo, desinformación y polarización (Colussi et al., 2023;Hameleers et al., 2022), se recopilaron y analizaron publicaciones de Twitter y Facebook.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Colussi et al., 2023

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Hameleers et al., 2022 source

      The paper states that social media can amplify disinformation (Disinformation and Deepfakes, p. 3). It also links the right-wing populist disinformation it studies to efforts to increase polarized divides (Disinformation’s Effects, p. 4), but does not establish the broader claim that social media foster the proliferation of populism and polarization generally. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In Gustavo Petro's communication, polarization elements (22%) are more used than populism (20%) and disinformation (11%).

    “El análisis de la comunicación de Gustavo Petro muestra que los elementos de polarización (22%) son más utilizados, que el populismo (20%) y la desinformación (11%).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The 25 most-engaged posts per president per platform are representative of each president's overall social media communication during the period.
    • Rests on an assumption: The period from July 1 to August 31, 2023 is representative of the presidents' general communication strategies.
  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Bukele expresses misleading content in 5% of his messages, related above all to legal aspects.

    “Expresa en el 5% de sus mensajes contenido engañosos, relacionado sobre todo con aspectos legales y el sentimiento más frecuente en la alegría, utilizada para dar buenas noticias al pueblo salvadoreño.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The 25 most-engaged posts per president per platform are representative of each president's overall social media communication during the period.
    • Rests on an assumption: The period from July 1 to August 31, 2023 is representative of the presidents' general communication strategies.
  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Bukele's communication is frequently shared in English, responding to the Salvadoran community in the United States and the international community.

    “Llama la atención la frecuencia con la que su comunicación es compartida en inglés respondiendo a la comunidad de salvadoreños que se encuentran en Estados Unidos y a la comunidad internacional.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The 25 most-engaged posts per president per platform are representative of each president's overall social media communication during the period.
    • Rests on an assumption: The period from July 1 to August 31, 2023 is representative of the presidents' general communication strategies.
  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Analysis of Argentine president Alberto Fernández's communication on Facebook and Twitter shows populism (60%), disinformation (56%) and polarization (64%).

    “El análisis de la comunicación del presidente de Argentina, Luis Alberto Fernández, en las plataformas de redes sociales, Facebook y Twitter muestra la presencia de elementos relacionados con el populismo (60%), la desinformación (56%) y polarización (64%).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The 25 most-engaged posts per president per platform are representative of each president's overall social media communication during the period.
    • Rests on an assumption: The period from July 1 to August 31, 2023 is representative of the presidents' general communication strategies.
  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    References to the in-group are more frequent (14%) and the sentiment of justice (11%) is the most used by Luis Arce.

    “Las referencias al grupo de pertenencia son más frecuentes (14%) y el sentimiento de justicia (11%) es el más utilizado por Luis Arce.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The 25 most-engaged posts per president per platform are representative of each president's overall social media communication during the period.
    • Rests on an assumption: The period from July 1 to August 31, 2023 is representative of the presidents' general communication strategies.
  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Nayib Bukele is the president who least uses populism (12%) and disinformation (6%).

    “El presidente del Salvador es el que menos recurre a estrategias de populismo (12%) y desinformación (6%).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The 25 most-engaged posts per president per platform are representative of each president's overall social media communication during the period.
    • Rests on an assumption: The period from July 1 to August 31, 2023 is representative of the presidents' general communication strategies.
  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    AMLO stands out for the use of these strategies; populism and polarization are present in 92% of his messages, and disinformation elements in 80%.

    “El presidente mexicano destaca por el uso de estas estrategias, el análisis de su comunicación muestra la presencia del populismo y la polarización en el 92% de sus mensajes, y de elementos de desinformación en el 80%.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The 25 most-engaged posts per president per platform are representative of each president's overall social media communication during the period.
    • Rests on an assumption: The period from July 1 to August 31, 2023 is representative of the presidents' general communication strategies.
  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Fernández's messages contain misleading content (28%) especially on economic topics and recur to the sentiment of justice (32%) recurrently.

    “Sus mensajes contienen contenido engañoso (28%) sobre todo respecto a temas económicos y recurre al sentimiento de justicia (32%) de manera recurrente.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The 25 most-engaged posts per president per platform are representative of each president's overall social media communication during the period.
    • Rests on an assumption: The period from July 1 to August 31, 2023 is representative of the presidents' general communication strategies.
  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    References to them and us are 15%, mainly to the external group (10%) represented by criminals and paramilitaries.

    “Se presentan referencias a ellos y nosotros (15%), principalmente al grupo externo (10%) representado por criminales y paramilitares.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The 25 most-engaged posts per president per platform are representative of each president's overall social media communication during the period.
    • Rests on an assumption: The period from July 1 to August 31, 2023 is representative of the presidents' general communication strategies.
  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In Bolivia, elements of populism (24%), disinformation (11%) and polarization (24%) are less present.

    “En el caso del mandatario de Bolivia son menos presentes los elementos de populismo (24%), desinformación (11%) y polarización (24%).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The 25 most-engaged posts per president per platform are representative of each president's overall social media communication during the period.
    • Rests on an assumption: The period from July 1 to August 31, 2023 is representative of the presidents' general communication strategies.
  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    References to the people are the main populist element, present in 35% of the analyzed posts.

    “De manera general se observa la presencia de elementos discursivos populistas en el 75% de los posts analizados, principalmente las referencias al pueblo (35%).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Misleading content is the main type of disinformation, present in 27% of the publications.

    “El 51% de las publicaciones contienen desinformación, principalmente contenido engañoso (27%) y el 87% presenta algún tipo de polarización, siendo la referencia al grupo de pertenencia “nosotros” las más frecuente (38.4%).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In Fernández's discourse, references to them and us are 32%; the external group is composed of businessmen and international economic organizations, who are blamed for the economic crisis.

    “Se presentan principalmente referencias a ellos y nosotros (32%) en su discurso el grupo externo se compone de empresarios y de organizaciones económicas internacionales, a quienes se les señala como los culpables de la crisis económica.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The 25 most-engaged posts per president per platform are representative of each president's overall social media communication during the period.
    • Rests on an assumption: The period from July 1 to August 31, 2023 is representative of the presidents' general communication strategies.
  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In the analyzed sample, references to morality are absent and references to the people appear only in 11% of Luis Arce's messages.

    “En la muestra analizada no están presentes referencias a la moral y las referencias al pueblo únicamente aparecen en el 11% de sus mensajes, estos contienen palabras como Bolivianos, pueblos, nuestro y región.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The 25 most-engaged posts per president per platform are representative of each president's overall social media communication during the period.
    • Rests on an assumption: The period from July 1 to August 31, 2023 is representative of the presidents' general communication strategies.
  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    In Mexico, AMLO has 92% populist content, while in Bolivia Luis Arce has 24% and in El Salvador Nayib Bukele has 12%.

    “Por ejemplo, en México, Andrés Manuel López Obrador (AMLO) se destaca por su 92% de contenido populista, mientras que, en Bolivia, Luis Arce presenta un 24% y en El Salvador, Nayib Bukele un 12%.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The 25 most-engaged posts per president per platform are representative of each president's overall social media communication during the period.
    • Rests on an assumption: The period from July 1 to August 31, 2023 is representative of the presidents' general communication strategies.
  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    They use terms us and them constantly, as well as messages containing emotions like justice, joy or anger in a political context.

    “Utilizan términos como ellos y nosotros de manera constante, así como mensajes que contienen emociones como justicia, alegría o ira en un contexto político.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The five selected presidents and countries are representative enough of Latin American populist leaders for conclusions about regional patterns.
  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Disinformation includes misleading content, false connections and, in some cases, hate speech.

    “Esto incluye el uso de contenido engañoso, conexiones falsas y, en algunos casos, discursos de odio.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The five selected presidents and countries are representative enough of Latin American populist leaders for conclusions about regional patterns.
  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    El populismo de Nayib Bukele en El Salvador es un populismo punitivo que ha reconfigurado la política del país, combinando promesas de cambio y lucha contra la corrupción con un estilo de liderazgo autoritario y fuerte presencia en redes sociales.

    “En resumen, el populismo de Nayib Bukele en El Salvador es un populismo punitivo (Raziel, 2023) que ha reconfigurado la política del país, combinando elementos de cambio y promesas de lucha contra la corrupción con un estilo de liderazgo autoritario y una fuerte presencia en las redes sociales.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Raziel, 2023

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    El presidente Andrés Manuel López Obrador ha utilizado las cuentas oficiales de la Presidencia en redes sociales, especialmente Twitter, de manera agresiva para difundir propaganda y desinformación.

    “El presidente AMLO ha utilizado las cuentas oficiales de la Presidencia de la República en redes sociales, especialmente Twitter, de manera agresiva para difundir propaganda y desinformación.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    El presidente Nayib Bukele ha utilizado las redes sociales para difundir desinformación y propaganda, contribuyendo a una polarización creciente en la sociedad salvadoreña.

    “El presidente Bukele también ha utilizado las redes sociales para difundir desinformación y propaganda, lo que ha contribuido a una polarización creciente en la sociedad salvadoreña (Baires Quezada, 2019).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Baires Quezada, 2019

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    El discurso de Alberto Fernández no se presenta como un populismo dicotómico en su representación de oponentes, sino que adopta una posición más pluralista y consensualista.

    “Sin embargo, el discurso de Alberto Fernández no se presenta como un populismo dicotómico en su representación de oponentes, sino que adopta una posición más pluralista y consensualista, buscando construir puentes y alcanzar una definición plural de la concepción democrática (Secul, 2021).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Secul, 2021

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    En América Latina, los líderes populistas a menudo se presentan como defensores del pueblo contra las élites y usan un discurso centrado en la justicia social y la inclusión.

    “En América Latina, los líderes populistas a menudo se presentan como defensores del pueblo contra las élites y utilizan un discurso centrado en la justicia social y la inclusión (Federici, 2014).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Federici, 2014

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Los líderes populistas a menudo utilizan la desinformación y estrategias de deslegitimación de sus oponentes para consolidar su apoyo y perpetuar la polarización.

    “Los líderes populistas a menudo utilizan la desinformación y estrategias de deslegitimación de sus oponentes para consolidar su apoyo y perpetuar la polarización.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    After the content analysis, the data were interpreted through a comparative method to identify patterns, differences and similarities among the cases.

    “Una vez aplicado el análisis de contenido se interpretaron los datos a través de un método comparativo para identificar patrones, diferencias y similitudes entre los casos.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    La retórica de Gustavo Petro en la presidencia de Colombia se ha caracterizado por la identificación de enemigos y la defensa apasionada de sus posiciones.

    “La retórica de Gustavo Petro en su presidencia ha sido caracterizada por la identificación de enemigos y la defensa apasionada de sus posiciones.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    En los últimos años, el populismo, la desinformación y la polarización política han influido de manera importante en la vida política de Argentina, Bolivia, Colombia, México y El Salvador.

    “En los últimos años, los fenómenos del populismo, la desinformación y la polarización política han influido de manera importante en la vida política de Argentina, Bolivia, Colombia, México y El Salvador.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Populism manifests through references to the virtuous people and the general will, as well as recurring mentions of us and them.

    “Esto se manifiesta a través de referencias al pueblo virtuoso y la voluntad general, así como menciones recurrentes de nosotros y ellos.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The five selected presidents and countries are representative enough of Latin American populist leaders for conclusions about regional patterns.
  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Aunque hay diferencias entre regímenes y versiones de populismo en América Latina, la articulación entre desinformación, polarización y populismo está presente en todos los casos.

    “A lo largo de este recorrido conceptual y contextual se hacen evidentes las diferencias entre regímenes y versiones de populismo en América Latina; sin embargo, la articulación entre desinformación, polarización y populismo está presentes en todos los casos.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The content analysis was carried out systematically using a codebook and considering both explicit content and possible underlying implications.

    “El análisis se realizó de manera sistemática, a través de un libro de códigos (vea anexos) considerando tanto el contenido explícito como las posibles implicaciones subyacentes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    Five Latin American presidents were selected from countries spanning different democracy levels: Argentina and Colombia as flawed democracies, and Mexico, El Salvador and Bolivia as hybrid regimes.

    “Se seleccionaron cinco presidentes de países latinoamericanos que abarcan diferentes niveles de democracia: Argentina y Colombia, clasificados como democracia deficiente, y México, El Salvador y Bolivia, catalogados como régimen híbrido.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites The Economist (2023)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    El liderazgo de Luis Arce se basó en gestionar la crisis económica y restablecer la institucionalidad democrática, más que en una narrativa populista de pueblo movilizado.

    “Su liderazgo se basó en la capacidad de gestionar la crisis económica y restablecer la institucionalidad democrática, más que en una narrativa populista de pueblo movilizado (Casullo, 2019).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Casullo, 2019
  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Los líderes populistas de América Latina suelen presentarse como defensores de las clases marginadas, los trabajadores y las minorías, prometiendo soluciones a problemas socioeconómicos y luchando contra la corrupción y las élites políticas.

    “Los líderes populistas de esta región suelen presentarse como defensores de las clases marginadas, los trabajadores y las minorías, prometiendo soluciones a problemas socioeconómicos y luchando contra la corrupción y las élites políticas (Serrafero y Eberhardt, 2022).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Serrafero y Eberhardt, 2022

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Los líderes populistas a menudo recurren a la desinformación para mantener la lealtad de su base y desacreditar a sus adversarios políticos.

    “Los líderes populistas a menudo recurren a la desinformación como una estrategia para mantener la lealtad de su base y desacreditar a sus adversarios políticos.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    The case selection was based on a combination of demographic and political factors and on the countries' classification in The Economist Democracy Index (2023).

    “La elección de los casos se basó en una combinación de factores demográficos, políticos y su clasificación en el Índice de Democracia de The Economist (2023).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites The Economist (2023)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    El mandato de Andrés Manuel López Obrador en México ha estado marcado por el uso de un discurso populista, la propagación de desinformación y la erosión de instituciones democráticas, generando creciente polarización en la sociedad mexicana.

    “Sin embargo, su mandato ha estado marcado por el uso de un discurso populista, la propagación de desinformación y la erosión de las instituciones democráticas, lo que ha generado una creciente polarización en la sociedad mexicana (Estrada, 2022).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Estrada, 2022

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    El populismo en América Latina se ha caracterizado como inclusivo, en contraste con los populismos excluyentes de otras partes del mundo.

    “Esta modalidad de populismo se ha caracterizado como inclusiva en contraste con los populismos excluyentes de otras partes del mundo.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Los líderes populistas utilizan estrategias emocionales y retórica polarizadora para movilizar a sus seguidores, creando una dinámica de nosotros contra ellos.

    “Los líderes populistas utilizan estrategias emocionales y retórica polarizadora para movilizar a sus seguidores, creando una dinámica de nosotros contra ellos.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    El uso de estrategias emocionales y retórica polarizadora por líderes populistas latinoamericanos ha llevado a desinstitucionalización y polarización política en la región, impactando la estabilidad política y la cohesión social.

    “Esto ha llevado a la desinstitucionalización y la polarización política en la región, lo que a su vez ha impactado en la estabilidad política y la cohesión social en varios países latinoamericanos.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Disinformation is an important characteristic in these leaders' communication, representing more than half of their content.

    “La desinformación es una característica importante en la comunicación de estos líderes, representando más de la mitad de su contenido.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The five selected presidents and countries are representative enough of Latin American populist leaders for conclusions about regional patterns.
  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Although all analyzed leaders resort to disinformation and polarization, there are differences in focus.

    “Asimismo, aunque todos los líderes políticos analizados recurren a la desinformación y a la polarización, también existen diferencias en el enfoque.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The five selected presidents and countries are representative enough of Latin American populist leaders for conclusions about regional patterns.
  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    There is a strong relationship between populism and polarization, since the former is often based on creating a dichotomy between the virtuous people and their adversaries, contributing to polarization.

    “Existe una fuerte relación entre el populismo y la polarización, ya que el primero se basa frecuentemente en la creación de una dicotomía entre el pueblo virtuoso y sus adversarios, lo que contribuye a la polarización.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The five selected presidents and countries are representative enough of Latin American populist leaders for conclusions about regional patterns.
  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Particular cases like Bukele reflect how populism and disinformation have evolved in the digital era, using entertainment tools, simplified narratives and direct communication through social networks to reach a younger and connected audience.

    “Por otra parte, casos particulares como el de Nayib Bukele, reflejan cómo el populismo y la desinformación han evolucionado en la era digital, utilizando herramientas de entretenimiento, narrativas simplificadas y una comunicación directa a través de las redes sociales para llegar a una audiencia más joven y conectada.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The five selected presidents and countries are representative enough of Latin American populist leaders for conclusions about regional patterns.
  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Although five countries were addressed, the sample is not completely representative of regional diversity, and the lack of application to specific political events limits the contextualization of the results.

    “Además, aunque se abordaron cinco países diferentes, la muestra no es completamente representativa de la diversidad regional, y la falta de aplicación a eventos políticos específicos limita la contextualización de los resultados.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Twitter's 280 characters make it a propitious space for simplified and emotive messages that reinforce populist narratives.

    “En sus 280 caracteres la plataforma se presenta como el espacio propicio para mensajes simplificados y emotivos que refuerzan narrativas populistas.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The five selected presidents and countries are representative enough of Latin American populist leaders for conclusions about regional patterns.
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The omission of measuring user reactions and comments is an important deficit, because online interaction can be a key indicator of the effectiveness and influence of the populist narrative and disinformation.

    “La omisión de la medición de las reacciones y comentarios de los usuarios constituye un déficit importante, ya que la interacción en línea puede ser un indicador clave de la efectividad y la influencia de la narrativa populista y la desinformación.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The analyzed Latin American leaders use populism strategies to mobilize their base and create a political identity defined by the us/them dichotomy.

    “Los resultados muestran que los líderes latinoamericanos analizados utilizan estrategias de populismo para movilizar a su base de seguidores y crear una identidad política definida por la dicotomía entre nosotros y ellos.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The five selected presidents and countries are representative enough of Latin American populist leaders for conclusions about regional patterns.
  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Although the five analyzed leaders show populism elements, there are significant differences in the degree of prominence of populism.

    “Aunque los cinco líderes políticos analizados muestran elementos de populismo en su comunicación, existen diferencias significativas en el grado de prominencia del populismo.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The five selected presidents and countries are representative enough of Latin American populist leaders for conclusions about regional patterns.
  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Gustavo Petro in Colombia focuses more on polarization than disinformation, while AMLO in Mexico intensively combines populism, disinformation and polarization in his communication.

    “Por ejemplo, Gustavo Petro en Colombia se enfoca más en la polarización que en la desinformación, mientras que AMLO en México combina de manera intensiva el populismo, la desinformación y la polarización en su comunicación.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The five selected presidents and countries are representative enough of Latin American populist leaders for conclusions about regional patterns.
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The absence of this component prevents a complete evaluation of how these strategies affect public perception and contribute to polarization.

    “La ausencia de este componente impide una evaluación completa de cómo estas estrategias afectan la percepción pública y contribuyen a la polarización.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Polarization is a key strategy to maintain and mobilize the follower base by presenting a clear division between the people and the "non-people" and generating emotions like joy or anger.

    “La polarización, por su parte, es una estrategia clave para mantener y movilizar a esa base de seguidores al presentar una clara división entre el pueblo y el “no pueblo” y generar emociones como la alegría o la ira.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The five selected presidents and countries are representative enough of Latin American populist leaders for conclusions about regional patterns.
52 of 52
  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The 25 most-engaged posts per president per platform are representative of each president's overall social media communication during the period.

    “se seleccionaron los post de los presidentes de Argentina, Bolivia, Colombia, El Salvador y México con más engagement, en un periodo comprendido del 1 de julio al 31 de agosto del 2023.”
    “se extrajeron los 25 post de ambas cuentas oficiales de cada uno de los presidentes, teniendo un total de 125 post analizados”
  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The period from July 1 to August 31, 2023 is representative of the presidents' general communication strategies.

    “se seleccionaron los post de los presidentes de Argentina, Bolivia, Colombia, El Salvador y México con más engagement, en un periodo comprendido del 1 de julio al 31 de agosto del 2023.”
  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The five selected presidents and countries are representative enough of Latin American populist leaders for conclusions about regional patterns.

    “Se seleccionaron cinco presidentes de países latinoamericanos que abarcan diferentes niveles de democracia: Argentina y Colombia, clasificados como democracia deficiente, y México, El Salvador y Bolivia, catalogados como régimen híbrido.”
    “Estos resultados muestran cómo estas tres dimensiones están interconectadas en el discurso político de la región.”
3 of 3

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Algunos porcentajes por presidente son imposibles para muestras de 25 publicaciones

    Minor

    El método indica 25 publicaciones por presidente. Una publicación representa el 4% de esa muestra, por lo que porcentajes de publicaciones como el 11% de desinformación de Arce no pueden obtenerse ni por redondeo al punto porcentual.

1 of 1

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

1 of the 33 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 6

  1. Cantamutto, F. y Schorr, M. (2022). El gobierno de Alberto Fernández: balance del primer año de gestión. Una mirada desde la economica política. E-l@Tina. Revista ElectróNica de Estudios Latinoamericanos, 20(78), 66–95. https://www.redalyc.org/journal/4964/496469251006/html/
  2. Freidenberg, F. (2022). Las reformas electorales en América Latina: una evaluación de los procesos de cambio de reglas de juego. En F. Freidenberg (Coord.), Reformas electorales en América Latina (pp. 3-24). Instituto de Investigaciones Jurídicas, UNAM - Instituto Electoral de la Ciudad De México.
  3. Ramos, C. y Rivera, C. I. (2022). Redes sociales y populismo: Un análisis contemporáneo. En Proceedings del Congreso Internacional sobre Ciencia Política (pp. 123-135). Editorial Académica.
  4. Saiz, E. (2020) Crisis de las democracias: una conjugación entre desinformación, desconfianza, polarización política y populismo. Gestión y Finanzas, 5(3), pp. 47-56.
  5. Sánchez de Loria Parodi, H. (2018). Notas sobre el populismo a la luz del pensamiento tomista. En M. Carvallo (Comp.), Populismo: pasado, presente y futuro (pp. 77-92). Academia Nacional de Ciencias Morales y Políticas
  6. Tajfel, H. y Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. En W. G. Austin y S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33-37). Brooks/Cole.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Authors
Rivera Magos, S., & González Pureco, G.
Venue
Revista Mexicana de Opinión Pública
Published
2024-01-15
Issue
36
Pages
79-107
ISSN
  • 1870-7300 (ISSN-L)
  • 2448-4911
OpenAlex
W4392548928
Cited by
10
References
33
Citations by year
2026: 6 · 2025: 4
FWCI
16.71
Type
journal article
Language
es
Open access
Licence
cc-by-nc-nd
Locations
Revista Mexicana de Opinión Pública (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Populism, Right-Wing Movements
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Misinformation and Its Impacts
  • Social Sciences › Communication › Social Media and Politics
Keywords
populism, misinformation, political polarization, populist leaders, social media communication, Latin American populism, Alberto Fernández, Andrés Manuel López Obrador, Gustavo Petro, Nayib Bukele, general will, hate speech, emotions in politics, deceptive content

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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-13.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-13.

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Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

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