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Interaction and the Conservation of Gender Inequality: Considering Employment
Abstract
How can we explain the persistence of gender hierarchy over transformations in its socioeconomic base? Part of the answer lies in the mediation of gender inequality by taken-for-granted interactional processes that rewrite inequality into new institutional arrangements. The problems of interacting cause actors to automatically sex-categorize others and, thus, to cue gender stereotypes that have various effects on interactional outcomes, usually by modifying the performance of other, more salient identities. Because changes in the status dimension of gender stereotypes lag behind changes in resource inequalities, interactional status processes can reestablish gender inequalities in new structural forms. Interactional sex categorization also biases the choice of comparison others, causing men and women to judge differently the rewards available to them. Operating in workplace relations, these processes conserve inequality by driving the gender-labeling of jobs, constructing people as gender-interested actors, contributing to employers' discriminatory preferences, and mediating men's and women's perceptions of alternatives and their willingness to settle for given job outcomes.
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“Valuation is a social process and as such will be influenced by gender status beliefs, which privilege men and 'masculine' attributes and objects over their feminine counterparts (Ridgeway 1997).”
From Gendering Reciprocity: Solving a Puzzle of Nonreciprocation (2013) · cites this paper as Ridgeway 1997
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“So, while different status values are assigned to men and women, those stereotypic traits spread to the job as well (Ridgeway, 1997).”
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“Status beliefs derive from cultural processes that stereotype one group (e.g., men) as being superior to or more competent than another (e.g., women; Ridgeway, 1991, 1997).”
BackgroundIt's Not Only “Who You Know” that Matters
Huffman, M. L., & Torres, L. (2002) · Gender & Society · doi:10.1177/089124302237889 · Cited by 72
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“As a consequence, people who start with a greater share of status characteristics end with a greater share of influence (Mullen, Salas, & Driskel, 1989; Ridgeway, 1991, 1997, 2001; Ridgeway & Diekema, 1989; Ridgeway & Johnson, 1990).”
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Managerial Perspectives on Implicit Bias, Affirmative Action, and Merit
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“Additionally, our analysis of compliance patterns before and after disciplinary action provides support for an interaction-based theory of occupational gendering (Ridgeway 1997).”
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Network Position and Sexual Dysfunction: Implications of Partner Betweenness for Men
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Resisting the Enforcement of Sexual Harassment Law
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“As such, studying resistance to the enforcement of sexual harassment law is important since such resistance may undermine long-term goals of changing social structure (Ridgeway 1997; Correll 2001).”
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“…that support for an informal hierarchy frequently develops from members’ beliefs, called referential beliefs, about the types of people that usually hold high- and low-status positions in the surrounding society (Ridgeway, 1997; Ridgeway and Berger, 1986; Ridgeway, Johnson, and Diekema, 1994).”
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“…have drawn from statistical discrimination, implicit bias, and status characteristics theories to show how employment discrimination can result from both employers’ intentional actions based on prejudice, as well as unconscious bias (Arrow, 1973; Reskin & Roos, 1990; Ridgeway, 1991, 1997).”
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“…to inequality, as patterns of social stratification often correspond to categorical boundaries between social groups (Lamont and Molnár 2002; Ridgeway 2014), such as race/ethnicity (Massey 2007; Pager and Shepherd 2008; Wimmer 2013) and gender (Read and Gorman 2010; Ridgeway 1997, 2011).”
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“…positions in the companies’ various functional departments in typically male-labelled professions such as medicine, law enforcement and science and typically female-labelled professions such as nursing and administration {Ridgeway, 1997 #1040} as well as rather mixed professions such as management.”
BackgroundTwenty-Five Years After the ADA: Situating Disability in America’s System of Stratification
Maroto, M. L., & Pettinicchio, D. (2015) · Disability Studies Quarterly · doi:10.18061/dsq.v35i3.4927 · Cited by 70
Ballantyne, P. J. (1999) · Scandinavian Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1177/14034948990270040101 · Cited by 63
Polavieja, J. G. (2007) · European Sociological Review · doi:10.1093/esr/jcm043 · Cited by 63
“patriarchal values (see e.g. Bergmann, 1986; Reskin and Padavic, 1988; Goldin, 1990; Ridgeway, 1997).”
The Effect of a Child's Sex on Support for Traditional Gender Roles
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National Skill Regimes, Postindustrialism, and Sex Segregation
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Shifting the Breadwinning Boundary
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Gender Dynamics in the Planning Workplace
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“According to expectation states theory (Berger et al., 1974; Correll & Ridgeway 2006; Ridgeway & Smith-Lovin, 1999), individuals can unconsciously reproduce structural inequalities through interpersonal behavior and reward structures (Ridgeway, 1997).”
BackgroundPower, Safety, and Learning in Racially Diverse Groups
Foldy, E. G., Rivard, P. E., & Buckley, T. R. (2009) · Academy of Management Learning and Education · doi:10.5465/amle.2009.37012177 · Cited by 66
“…are more likely than members of color to have workstyles that are in sync with organizational norms, thus giving white members the power to dictate, implicitly or explicitly, group interaction styles (Elsass & Graves, 1997; Larkey, 1996; Ridgeway, 1997; Smith-Lovin & Brody, 1989; Sue & Sue, 2003).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Ridgeway, C. L.
- Affiliations
- Stanford University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Ridgeway, Cecilia L.
- ORCID
- Ridgeway, Cecilia L.
- Venue
- American Sociological Review
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 1997-04
- Volume
- 62
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 218
- ISSN
- 0003-1224 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2091725322
- Cited by
- 939
- References
- 61
- Citations by year
- 2026: 19 · 2025: 27 · 2024: 44 · 2023: 47 · 2022: 37 · 2021: 36 · 2020: 63 · 2019: 44 · 2018: 48 · 2017: 33 · 2016: 30 · 2015: 37 · 2014: 45 · 2013: 53 · 2012: 39
- FWCI
- 28.27
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Sociological Review (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender and Feminist Studies
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender Diversity and Inequality
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Industrial relations › Employment, Labor, and Gender Studies
- Keywords
- gender inequality, gender stereotypes, interaction processes, sex categorization, gender hierarchy, employment, employment discrimination, gender pay gap, job choice
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