The Social Self: On Being the Same and Different at the Same Time

Brewer, Marilynn B.

doi:10.1177/0146167291175001

Cited by 5,107Social and Intergroup PsychologyCultural Differences and ValuesDeath Anxiety and Social Exclusion

The Social Self: On Being the Same and Different at the Same Time

Brewer, Marilynn B.·1991·Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin

DOI 10.1177/0146167291175001

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Abstract

Mfost of social psychology's theories of the self fail to take into account the significance of social identification in the definition of self. Social identities are self-definitions that are more inclusive than the individuated self-concept of most American psychology. A model of optimal distinctiveness is proposed in which social identity is viewed as a reconciliation of opposing needs for assimilation and differentiation from others. According to this model, individuals avoid self-construals that are either too personalized or too inclusive and instead define themselves in terms of distinctive category memberships. Social identity and group loyalty are hypothesized to be strongest for those self-categorizations that simultaneously provide for a sense of belonging and a sense of distinctiveness. Results from an initial laboratory experiment support the prediction that depersonalization and group size interact as determinants of the strength of social identification.

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People may contradict norms when they feel pressured to conform, do not identify-or even disidentify-with the reference group or conventional society, want to stress individuality after experiences of depersonalization, or perceive injunctive and descriptive norms to contradict each other.
“Instead, people may contradict norms when they feel pressured to conform (see research on reactance; Miron & Brehm, 2006), do not identify—or even disidentify—with the reference group or conventional society (e.g., Giannakakis & Fritsche, 2011), want to stress individuality after experiences of depersonalization (Brewer, 1991), or perceive injunctive and descriptive norms to contradict each other”
From Do Salient Social Norms Moderate Mortality Salience Effects? A (Challenging) Meta-Analysis of Terror Management Studies (2023) · cites this paper as Brewer, 1991
Individuals instinctively think of themselves as representing broad socioeconomic and cultural categories rather than as distinctive packages of traits.
“Individuals instinctively think of themselves as representing broad socioeconomic and cultural categories rather than as distinctive packages of traits”
From The Origins and Consequences of Affective Polarization in the United States (2019) · cites this paper as Brewer 1991
Group affiliation is essential to our sense of self.
“Homo sapiens is a social species; group affiliation is essential to our sense of self.”
From The Origins and Consequences of Affective Polarization in the United States (2019) · cites this paper as Brewer 1991
Optimal distinctiveness theory suggests that individuals feel included when they are valued for their uniqueness while also experiencing a sense of belonging within the group.
“Optimal distinctiveness theory suggests that individuals feel included when they are valued for their uniqueness while also experiencing a sense of belonging within the group (12, 26).”
From Building on the Translational Science Benefits Model to include team science: a practical and theory-based approach to continuous quality improvement and impact evaluation for Clinical and Translational Science Award programs (2025) · cites this paper as [26]
Negative identities can emerge out of an independent and primary sense of differentiation from an out-group in the absence of in-group belonging.
“In the absence of in-group belonging, however, negative identities can emerge out of an independent and primary sense of differentiation from an out-group.”
From Them’ without ‘us’: Negative identities and affective polarization in Brazil (2022) · cites this paper as Brewer 1991

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Background
The interactions between facilitator identity, conflictual presence, and social presence in peer-moderated online collaborative learning
Xie, K., Lu, L., Cheng, S.-L., & Izmirli, S. (2017) · Distance Education · doi:10.1080/01587919.2017.1322458 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Stories in Action.
Walsh, J., Vaida, N., Coman, A., & Fiske, S. T. (2022) · Psychological Science in the Public Interest · doi:10.1177/15291006231161337 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“Social identity determines the boundaries of community membership (M. B. Brewer, 1991) and establishes people’s role within their group (Biddle, 2013).”
Background
Threats and Alliances in the Middle East: Saudi and Syrian Policies in a Turbulent Region
Darwich, M. (2019) · doi:10.1017/9781108656689 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
An Appreciative View of the Brighter Side of Terror Management Processes
Vail, III, & Juhl, J. (2015) · Social Sciences · doi:10.3390/socsci4041020 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
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Areal, J. (2022) · Political Research Exchange · doi:10.1080/2474736x.2022.2117635 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Exaggerating differences back and forth: Two levels of intergroup accentuation
Rothermund, P., & Deutsch, R. (2024) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12699 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
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Building on the Translational Science Benefits Model to include team science: a practical and theory-based approach to continuous quality improvement and impact evaluation for Clinical and Translational Science Award programs
Brimhall, K. C., Kuhfeldt, K., Kotton, D. N., & Jones, M. R. (2025) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2025.1581205 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“The leader’s ability to encourage the participation of all members and expressing value for their unique perspectives aligns with the theoretical foundation for creating an inclusive climate (10–12, 26).”

Authors: Brewer, M. B.
Affiliations: University of California, Los Angeles (US)
Corresponding author: Brewer, Marilynn B.
ORCID: Brewer, Marilynn B.
Venue: Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 1991-10
Volume: 17
Issue: 5
Pages: 475-482
ISSN: 0146-1672 (ISSN-L)
1552-7433
DOI: 10.1177/0146167291175001
OpenAlex: W2102756860
Cited by: 5,107
References: 2
Citations by year: 2026: 262 · 2025: 253 · 2024: 249 · 2023: 228 · 2022: 219 · 2021: 300 · 2020: 235 · 2019: 263 · 2018: 222 · 2017: 261 · 2016: 227 · 2015: 220 · 2014: 217 · 2013: 225 · 2012: 227
FWCI: 51.81
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations: Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Cultural Differences and Values
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
Keywords: social identity, self-concept, social identification, optimal distinctiveness, self-categorization, group loyalty, sense of belonging, depersonalization, group size, self-construal

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The Social Self: On Being the Same and Different at the Same Time

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