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Belief in Conspiracy Theories
Abstract
A survey of 348 residents of southwestern New Jersey showed that most believed that several of a list of 10 conspiracy theories were at least probably true. People who believed in one conspiracy were more likely to also believe in others. Belief in conspiracies was correlated with anomia, lack of interpersonal trust, and insecurity about employment. Black and hispanic respondents were more likely to believe in conspiracy theories than were white respondents. Young people were slightly more likely to believe in conspiracy theories, but there were few significant correlations with gender, educational level, or occupational category.
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In the citing paper
“Research has linked beliefs in conspiracy theories with low levels of trust [8], [33].”
From The Effects of Anti-Vaccine Conspiracy Theories on Vaccination Intentions (2014) · cites this paper as [8]
In the citing paper
“Psychologists are learning more about the traits and characteristics associated with beliefs in conspiracy theories more generally, such as mistrust, anomie, political cynicism and Machiavellianism [8], [20], [31], [50]”
From The Effects of Anti-Vaccine Conspiracy Theories on Vaccination Intentions (2014) · cites this paper as [8]
In the citing paper
“People who endorse one conspiracy are known to be likely to also endorse multiple others”
From The Role of Conspiracist Ideation and Worldviews in Predicting Rejection of Science (2013) · cites this paper as [44]
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Pärnamets, P., Alfano, M., Ross, R. M., & Bavel, J. J. V. (2026) · Judgment and Decision Making · doi:10.1017/jdm.2026.10033 · Cited by 2
Diseminación de creencias conspirativas en la blogosfera. La elección presidencial de 2006
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On Some Factors Contributing to Belief in Conspiracy Theories
Ivančík, R., & Andrassy, V. (2023) · Academic Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies · doi:10.36941/ajis-2023-0056 · Cited by 2
Stubbersfield, J. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198869252.013.72 · Cited by 5
Are You Worried About Getting Covid-19 or About Losing Your Job?
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Lin, X., & Yan, L. (2023) · Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research · doi:10.1080/10941665.2023.2293799 · Cited by 2
“With a conspiracy belief, ethnic groups, such as African Americans, have been shown to have low interpersonal trust and high inse-curity and may hold negative viewpoints toward public medical treatment (Goertzel, 1994).”
BackgroundChatterjee, S., Vrontis, D., Hussain, Z., Basile, G., & Bianco, R. (2024) · International Journal of Law and Management · doi:10.1108/ijlma-02-2024-0045 · Cited by 2
Conspiracy Ideation and Populism
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TBMM Tutanaklarında Maraş Olayları ve Komplo Teorileri
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Domains of baseless belief and the characteristics of believers
Roscoe, D. D., Shapiro, A. M., & Ayotte, B. J. (2024) · Social Science Quarterly · doi:10.1111/ssqu.13448 · Cited by 2
Can Education Save Us From Ourselves? Three Psychological Challenges to Democracy
Clark, C. H., & Schmeichel, M. (2024) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543241288245 · Cited by 4
“These beliefs form a self-sustaining network called a monological belief system (Goertzel, 1994).”
Wang, Y., Shen, L., & Chen, K. (2024) · Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly · doi:10.1177/10776990241304414 · Cited by 2
Dialogicality and Conspiracy Theory: The Coexistence of Conspiracist and Non‐Conspiracist Beliefs
Hall, M. S., Franks, B., & Bauer, M. W. (2025) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.3120 · Cited by 3
Hameleers, M. (2025) · Mass Communication & Society · doi:10.1080/15205436.2025.2458862 · Cited by 2
“People supporting one conspiracy theory are also likely to believe other conspiracies, confirming the more general cognitive and affective foundations of conspiracy reasoning (e.g., Goertzel, 1994).”
Ghosh, V., & Kabra, G. (2025) · Enterprise Information Systems · doi:10.1080/17517575.2025.2462971 · Cited by 4
“For instance, Miller (2020) recently gathered evidence supporting the ‘monological belief system’ concept of conspiracy theories (Goertzel 1994) in the context of COVID-19.”
Romer, D., & Jamieson, K. (2025) · Frontiers in Communication · doi:10.3389/fcomm.2025.1490292 · Cited by 3
Bridging the Cognitive/Collective and Supply/Demand Divides in Conspiracy Theory Research
Peker, E., & Dufour, F. G. (2025) · Social Science Quarterly · doi:10.1111/ssqu.70005 · Cited by 4
Uygur, M. E., & ÇİNPOLAT, E. (2025) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-025-07544-1 · Cited by 2
“We know from the literature that those who believe in one conspiracy tend to believe in other conspiracy theories (Goertzel, 1994).”
Buchmayr, F., & Krouwel, A. (2025) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.13085 · Cited by 3
“The latter approach is followed in this paper and is based on the crucial finding that people who believe in one conspiracy theory also tend to believe in other conspiracy theories (Goertzel, 1994).”
Neural correlates of conspiracy beliefs during information evaluation
Zhao, S., Wang, T., & Xiong, B. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-03723-z · Cited by 4
Witte, H. D., Hootegem, A. V., & Roll, L. C. (2025) · Economic and Industrial Democracy · doi:10.1177/0143831x251347770 · Cited by 3
“For example, studies have reported a positive relationship between adherence to conspiracy theories and feelings of powerlessness (Abalakina-paap et al., 1999), anomy (Goertzel, 1994) and an external locus of control (Hamsher et al., 1968).”
Napolitano, M. G. (2025) · Social Epistemology · doi:10.1080/02691728.2025.2505459 · Cited by 3
van Es, L., van Prooijen, J., van Buuren, J., & van Veldhuizen, A. (2025) · European Journal of Criminology · doi:10.1177/14773708251351728 · Cited by 2
“This can be explained with the idea of the monological belief system, which means that one belief serves as evidence for other beliefs (Goertzel, 1994; Williams et al., 2022).”
Conspiracy beliefs and analytical thinking in COVID-19 information web search
Vital, N., Chevalier, A., Dosso, C., & Trémolière, B. (2025) · Computers in Human Behavior Reports · doi:10.1016/j.chbr.2025.100804 · Cited by 3
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Odoh, S. I., & Nwogbaga, D. M. E. (2015) · International Affairs and Global Strategy · Cited by 2
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Korzeniowski, K. (2012) · Studia Ekonomiczne / Polska Akademia Nauk. Instytut Nauk Ekonomicznych · Cited by 2
The Judeo-Bolshevik conspiracy and the persecution of Jews in interwar Salonica
Michalopoulos, G. D. (2015) · Cited by 2
Angst und Verschwörungstheorien
Bartoschek, S. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-59549-7_2 · Cited by 2
Dark Religion and Conspiracy Theories
Šolc, V. (2019) · Jung Journal · doi:10.1080/19342039.2019.1676142 · Cited by 2
“Conspiracy theories offer a certain compensatory sense of control; they offer people an opportunity to reject the officially recognized narratives and thereby grant them some sense of power (Goertzel 1994).”
BackgroundCONSPIRACY BELIEF AND BEHAVIOR IN THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC
Ярош, Н. С., Artiukhova, V., & Zimovin, O. (2021) · BRAIN BROAD RESEARCH IN ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND NEUROSCIENCE · doi:10.18662/brain/12.2/200 · Cited by 3
“In addition, conspiracy theories thrive wherever there is no trust between individuals and authorities (Darwin et. al., 2011; Goertzel, 1994).”
Backgroundde Melo, L. W. S., Broietti, F. C. D., & Salvi, R. F. (2021) · Alexandria Revista de Educação em Ciência e Tecnologia · doi:10.5007/1982-5153.2021.e74309 · Cited by 2
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“20-80 per cent of populations, depending on the country and issue considered [36] [107].”
BackgroundMariniello, M. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198831471.003.0005 · Cited by 2
Alethische und Narrative Modelle von Verschwörungstheorien
Heering, D. C. (2023) · Zeitschrift für Praktische Philosophie · doi:10.22613/zfpp/9.2.6 · Cited by 2
“…(a) Verschwörungstheorien sind kognitiv vernetzt – eine Verschwörungstheorie zu glauben erhöht die Wahrscheinlichkeit, andere Verschwörungstheorien zu glauben (Goertzel 1994; Wood, Douglas and Sutton 2012); (b) Verschwö-rungstheorien sind auch kulturell mit anderen Randphänomenen verknüpft.”
Background“Spreader of conspiracies”: How major U.S. newspapers differentiate them from Facebook
Habib, A. M. T., Yousuf, M., & Mohammed, I. (2023) · Newspaper Research Journal · doi:10.1177/07395329231187634 · Cited by 5
“A conspiracy theory, often politically motivated, explains an event or situation that summons into action a secret agreement to perform an unlawful act by powerful groups with ominous intent (Goertzel, 1994).”
BackgroundThe spread of COVID-19 vaccine information in Arabic on YouTube: A network exposure study
Zeid, N., Tang, L., & Amith, M. “. (2023) · Digital Health · doi:10.1177/20552076231205714 · Cited by 2
“Vaccine conspiracy theories in Western culture have been excessively studied 74,75 and are often connected to libertarian views.”
BackgroundOn the motives of belief in conspiracy theories
Ivančík, R., & Nováková, D. (2023) · Journal of Entrepreneurship and Sustainability Issues · doi:10.9770/jesi.2023.11.2(8 · Cited by 2
With God We Distrust! The Impact of Values in Conspiracy Theory Beliefs About Migration in Serbia
Nefes, T. S., Đorđević, J. M., & Vdović, M. (2024) · Sociological Research Online · doi:10.1177/13607804231212310 · Cited by 2
“This approach often portrays beliefs in conspiracy theories as a pathology of marginal groups and associates them with extremist values (Bronner, 2003; Cohn, 1967; Goertzel, 1994; Hofstadter, 1965; Pipes, 1997; Robins and Post, 1997).”
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The antidepressant hoax: Conspiracy theories decrease health-seeking intentionsPreprint
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Moving between two paradigms - sociocultural approach to research of conspiracy theories
Lukić, P. (2020) · Sociologija · doi:10.2298/soc2002193l · Cited by 1
Teorie del complotto, radicalizzazione e ricerca del significato
Rullo, M., Fabbri, L., Melacarne, C., & Romano, A. (2022) · RICERCHE DI PSICOLOGIA · doi:10.3280/rip2022oa14613 · Cited by 1
Conspiracy Theories About the Covid-19 Pandemic in Turkey
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Conspiracy theorists in policing: causes, challenges, and considerations
Evans, N. (2023) · Journal of Policing Intelligence and Counter Terrorism · doi:10.1080/18335330.2023.2203711 · Cited by 3
“A strong link has also been established between educational attainment and conspiracy beliefs, with lower levels of education being linked to higher belief in conspiracy theories (Goertzel, 1994; Mancosu et al, 2017; Oliver & Wood, 2014).”
BackgroundToward French and Italian language validations of the Conspiracy Mentality Scale (CMS)
Stojanov, A., & Hannawa, A. (2023) · Measurement Instruments for the Social Sciences · doi:10.5964/miss.11429 · Cited by 2
“However, with the insight that conspiracy theory beliefs are interrelated (e.g., Goertzel, 1994; Imhoff & Lamberty, 2017; Lukić et al., 2019; Wood et al., 2012) and that they form part of a ‘conspiracy mentality’ (Imhoff et al., 2022; Imhoff & Bruder, 2014) measurement efforts have shifted towards…”
BackgroundVolek, J. J., & Moravec, V. (2023) · European Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1093/eurpub/ckad194 · Cited by 1
“For the purposes of this study, COVID-19 conspiracy narratives were defined as follows: (i) subversive ‘explanations of events’ 17 (such as pandemics), (ii) subversion of medical authorities’ recommendations regarding pro-health behavior (prevention and therapy) and (iii) interpretation of the…”
MethodBleier, A., Seethaler, M., Bermpohl, F., Majić, T., & Mick, I. (2024) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2024.02.006 · Cited by 1
SÄCHSISCHE REALITÄTEN : Analysen aktueller Protestphänomene der radikalen Rechten in Sachsen
Krell, M., & Böhme, T. (2024) · doi:10.25368/2024.41 · Cited by 1
Connecting Conspiracy Beliefs and Experiences of Social Exclusion
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How Mumbo-Jumbo conquered the world: empirical analysis of conspiracy theories
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“…by clandestine groups is a multifaceted phenomenon shaped by psychological traits, cognitive biases, political leanings, and socioeconomic dynamics (Goertzel 1994; Pigden 1995; Keeley 1999; Barkun 2003; Swami 2012; Brother-ton and French 2014; Van Prooijen et al. 2015; DiGrazia 2017; Mancosu et…”
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“In addition, previous studies on conspiratorial thinking have suggested that believers of conspiracy theories tend to identify a scapegoat, such as Jews or big pharma, as a simple, immediate, and definitive answer instead of complicated and abstract social forces to address their problems [16,17].”
InfluentialThey are Hiding the Truth and Plotting: Conspiracy Beliefs Among Latinos
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“…research has suggested that ingroup positivity can motivate conspiracy beliefs, which are defined as explanatory beliefs that attribute significant political or social events to a group or individuals who colluded in secret to achieve malevolent goals (Goertzel, 1994; Green & Douglas, 2018).”
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Kovář, D., Filip, M., Kulikowski, M., Pospíšilová, A., Dubovska, E., Kovářová, M., Suchý, V., & Klicperová-Baker, M. (2026) · Journal of constructivist psychology · doi:10.1080/10720537.2025.2598779 · Cited by 1
“To characterize the structure of conspiracy belief, Goertzel (1994) proposed the concept of a monological belief system, in which conspiracy beliefs reinforce each other.”
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“…worldview underlying them, share several elements with central themes of populism, such as Manichaeism (Hawkins, 2009), political and social distrust (Goertzel, 1994), and the tendency to seek and endorse simple explanations for complex social events to justify the status of their own in-group.”
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“The theory-based approach derived from the presumption that belief in conspiracies is monological (Goertzel, 1994), whereby accepting one conspiracy increases the likelihood of endorsing others.”
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“…for significant events that implicate malevolent, clandestine groups colluding to deceive or harm the public (e.g., Douglas et al., 2019; Goertzel, 1994; Imhoff & Lamberty, 2018; Uscinski & Parent, 2014), these narratives permeate all facets of U.S. public discourse, particularly at the…”
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How is social capital produced?
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Control social algorítmico: redes, conspiraciones y desinformación
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Dieckmann, N. F., & Hartman, R. O. (2022) · International Journal of Personality Psychology · doi:10.21827/ijpp.8.38006 · Cited by 3
“Previous research has shown that belief in conspiracy theories is related to feelings of powerlessness (Abalakina-Paap et al., 1999), high levels of anomie (a lack of trust in society; Goertzel, 1994), a lack of faith in other people (Goertzel, 1994), and lower self-esteem (Cichocka, 2016).”
BackgroundInfluentialDietrich, M., & Seeliger, M. (2022) · Cultural studies · doi:10.14361/9783839460559 · Cited by 1
Content Analysis in the Research Field of conspiracy theories in the digital media environment
Zeng, J. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-36179-2_39 · Cited by 2
Reitmair-Juárez, S. (2022) · Citizenship - Studien zur politischen Bildung · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-36589-9_10 · Cited by 1
Library workers on the front lines of conspiracy theories in the US: one nationwide survey
Beene, S., & Greer, K. (2023) · Reference Services Review · doi:10.1108/rsr-11-2022-0056 · Cited by 1
Passero, M. T., Tovim, J. B., & Jaume, L. C. (2023) · Revista Científica Arbitrada de la Fundación MenteClara · doi:10.32351/rca.v8.331 · Cited by 1
Metadata
- Authors
- Goertzel, T.
- Corresponding author
- Goertzel, Ted
- ORCID
- Goertzel, Ted
- Venue
- Political Psychology
- Publisher
- JSTOR
- Published
- 1994-12
- Volume
- 15
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 731
- ISSN
- 0162-895X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2315116440
- Cited by
- 1,094
- References
- 15
- Citations by year
- 2026: 64 · 2025: 85 · 2024: 119 · 2023: 111 · 2022: 171 · 2021: 140 · 2020: 89 · 2019: 58 · 2018: 46 · 2017: 34 · 2016: 23 · 2015: 34 · 2014: 23 · 2013: 26 · 2012: 10
- FWCI
- 1.71
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Political Psychology (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Misinformation and Its Impacts
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Paranormal Experiences and Beliefs
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Terrorism, Counterterrorism, and Political Violence
- Keywords
- conspiracy theories, conspiracy beliefs, anomie, interpersonal trust, job insecurity, racial differences, age differences
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