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Cited by 693Misinformation and Its ImpactsClimate Change Communication and PerceptionScience and Science Education

The Role of Conspiracist Ideation and Worldviews in Predicting Rejection of Science

Open access
Lewandowsky, Stephan, Gignac, Gilles E., Oberauer, Klaus·2013·PLoS ONE
DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0075637PMC PMC3788812
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Abstract

BACKGROUND: Among American Conservatives, but not Liberals, trust in science has been declining since the 1970's. Climate science has become particularly polarized, with Conservatives being more likely than Liberals to reject the notion that greenhouse gas emissions are warming the globe. Conversely, opposition to genetically-modified (GM) foods and vaccinations is often ascribed to the political Left although reliable data are lacking. There are also growing indications that rejection of science is suffused by conspiracist ideation, that is the general tendency to endorse conspiracy theories including the specific beliefs that inconvenient scientific findings constitute a "hoax." METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: We conducted a propensity weighted internet-panel survey of the U.S. population and show that conservatism and free-market worldview strongly predict rejection of climate science, in contrast to their weaker and opposing effects on acceptance of vaccinations. The two worldview variables do not predict opposition to GM. Conspiracist ideation, by contrast, predicts rejection of all three scientific propositions, albeit to greatly varying extents. Greater endorsement of a diverse set of conspiracy theories predicts opposition to GM foods, vaccinations, and climate science. CONCLUSIONS: Free-market worldviews are an important predictor of the rejection of scientific findings that have potential regulatory implications, such as climate science, but not necessarily of other scientific issues. Conspiracist ideation, by contrast, is associated with the rejection of all scientific propositions tested. We highlight the manifold cognitive reasons why conspiracist ideation would stand in opposition to the scientific method. The involvement of conspiracist ideation in the rejection of science has implications for science communicators.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

In a propensity-weighted U.S. internet-panel survey (N = 1,001), conservatism and free-market worldview strongly predicted rejection of climate science but had weaker, opposing, or no effects for vaccinations and GM foods, while conspiracist ideation predicted rejection of all three scientific propositions. The authors argue conspiracist ideation is a general cognitive style antithetical to scientific reasoning and relevant to science communication.

Key findings

  • Climate science rejection was strongly predicted by free-market worldview and conservatism; latent correlations with climate acceptance were −.674 for Free Market and −.730 for Conservatism (Table 4).
  • GM food opposition was not predicted by worldviews: the paths were set to zero without significant loss of fit, and correlations with GM acceptance were .091 for Free Market and (.004) for Conservatism, both non-significant. Conspiracist ideation did predict GM rejection (r = −.129).
  • Vaccination attitudes showed opposing worldview effects in the SEM: free-market endorsement predicted rejection, conservatism predicted acceptance, with small non-significant bivariate correlations (Free Market −.038; Conservatism .052) attributed to a suppressor effect. Conspiracist ideation was most strongly linked to vaccination rejection (r = −.521).
  • Conspiracist ideation predicted rejection of all three scientific issues. Convenience conspiracies were endorsed by 200/1,001 for the climate-change hoax, 147/1,001 for the tobacco–lung cancer hoax, and 104/1,001 for the HIV–AIDS conspiracy; the climate-change hoax item explained a third of the variance in climate-science acceptance.

Methods

  • Propensity-weighted internet-panel survey of 1,001 U.S. residents, recruited in early June 2012 via Qualtrics.com/uSamp.com; 1,383 entered, 74 gave no responses, and 308 failed the attention filter or did not complete all items. Median age was 43.0; 501 male and 500 female respondents.
  • The survey comprised 39 items plus age, gender, and an attention-filter question, all rated on a 5-point scale. Constructs included climate science, GM foods, vaccinations, conservatism–liberalism, free-market endorsement, general conspiracist ideation, convenience conspiracies, and other science items.
  • Main analysis used structural equation modeling with single-indicator latent variables in Amos 20.0, after confirming essentially unidimensional measurement models; bootstrapped confidence intervals were used because the conspiracist-ideation indicator departed from normality.

Limitations

  • Stated: although the sample was representative, it may not have included enough participants at the extreme ideological spectrum, so small specific left-wing groups might still reject GM foods or vaccinations; the association between conspiracist ideation and political orientation is not firmly tied to the left or right and awaits further research.
  • Evident: the design is cross-sectional and correlational, so causal direction cannot be established; all measures are self-report; and the SEM uses single-indicator composites, which the authors acknowledge can obscure multidimensionality even though they checked unidimensionality.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1371/journal.pone.0075637

Cites

71 of 71 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 75 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    Conservatism predicts acceptance of vaccinations.

    “The relationship between worldviews and attitudes towards vaccinations was more complex, with free-market endorsement predicting rejection and conservatism predicting acceptance of vaccinations, respectively.”
    • Also stated in: § Worldviews and acceptance of science · plain
      “Opposition to vaccinations involved a balance between two opposing forces, namely a negative association with free-market endorsement and a compensatory positive association with conservatism.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Rejection of scientific propositions is often accompanied by endorsement of scientific conspiracies pertinent to the proposition being rejected.

    “The correlations confirm that rejection of scientific propositions is often accompanied by endorsement of scientific conspiracies pertinent to the proposition being rejected.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The weights involving conspiracist ideation remained virtually unchanged in Models 2 and 3.

    “The weights involving conspiracist ideation remained virtually unchanged in these two additional models (Models 2 and 3).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingcitation

    The overall SEM (Model 1) fit very well based on conventional standards.

    “Figure 2 shows the overall SEM (Model 1) which fit very well (, , CFI , TLI = , RMSEA = ; 90% CI: , SRMR = , AIC = ) based on conventional standards (CFI and TLI .95 and RMSEA and SRMR .06; [33]).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [33] Lt Hu, 1999, Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives, Structural Equation Modeling source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Findingown data

    The two worldview variables do not predict opposition to GM foods.

    “The two worldview variables do not predict opposition to GM.”
    • Also stated in: § Modeling of science acceptance · plain
      “Acceptance of GM foods, by contrast, was not associated with people's worldviews (weights set to zero without significant loss of fit; , ).”
    • Also stated in: § Worldviews and acceptance of science · plain
      “Finally, opposition to GM foods was not associated with the worldview constructs.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 26
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 2
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 28

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The bivariate correlations between each worldview predictor and acceptance of vaccinations were in opposing directions but numerically small and non-significant.

    “Table 4 shows that the bivariate correlations between each of the worldview predictors (free market and conservatism latent variables) and the acceptance of vaccinations were in opposing directions but numerically small and non-significant.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Conservatism and free-market worldview are substantially and positively correlated with each other but opposingly associated with vaccinations.

    “In the present instance, we find that much of the suppressor effect arises from the fact that conservatism and free-market worldview are substantially and positively correlated with each other () but opposingly (positively vs. negatively, respectively) associated with vaccinations.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The link between conspiracist ideation and rejection was numerically strongest for vaccinations but also significant for GM foods and climate science.

    “Figure 2 shows that the link was numerically strongest for vaccinations but also significant for GM foods and climate science.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The convenience conspiracies were endorsed by 200, 147, and 104 respondents out of 1001 for Climate-Change-Hoax, Tobacco-Lung Cancer-Hoax, and HIV-AIDS-Conspiracy, respectively.

    “The convenience conspiracies were endorsed (i.e., ratings above “Neutral”) by 200, 147, and 104 respondents (out of 1001), for Climate-Change-Hoax (CYClimChange), Tobacco-Lung Cancer-Hoax (CYTobacco), and HIV-AIDS-Conspiracy (CYAIDS), respectively.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In the additional model without free-market endorsement (Model 3), the strength of the link between conservatism and rejection of climate science rose, and the link between conservatism and vaccination was no longer significant.

    “The additional model without free-market endorsement (Model 3) fit adequately, , CFI, TLI = , RMSEA; 90% CI: , SRMR = , AIC = , with the strength of the link between conservatism and rejection of climate science rising to . The link between conservatism and vaccination, by contrast, was no longer significant, .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In the additional model without conservatism (Model 2), the strength of the link between free-market endorsement and rejection of climate science rose, and the link between free-market endorsement and rejection of vaccination declined in magnitude but retained its significance.

    “The additional model without conservatism (Model 2) also fit very well, , CFI, TLI = , RMSEA; 90% CI: , SRMR = , AIC = , with the strength of the link between free-market endorsement and rejection of climate science rising to . The link between free-market endorsement and rejection of vaccination declined in magnitude, , but retained its significance ().”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Conservatism and free-market endorsement were correlated but distinct constructs, each of which contributed a substantial share of variance to the rejection of climate science.

    “Conservatism and free-market endorsement were correlated but distinct constructs (Model 1 in Figure 2), each of which contributed a substantial share of variance to the rejection of climate science.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The main SEM model showed a negative association between conspiracy theorizing and conservatism, as well as with free-market endorsement.

    “Our main SEM model showed a negative association between conspiracy theorizing and conservatism (as well as with free-market endorsement)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    When free-market worldviews are parceled out, people on the political left were less likely to endorse childhood vaccinations than people on the political right.

    “When free-market worldviews are parceled out (and only then), people on the political left were less likely to endorse childhood vaccinations than people on the political right.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    The conservatism construct was the only exception, requiring two correlated error terms.

    “The only exception was the conservatism construct which included two correlated error terms.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Analyses of YouTube videos critical of HPV vaccinations and anti-vaccination blogs have revealed widespread conspiratorial content.

    “Likewise, analyses of YouTube videos critical of HPV vaccinations [28] and anti-vaccination blogs [29] have revealed widespread conspiratorial content.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [28] R Briones, 2012, When vaccines go viral: An analysis of HPV vaccine coverage on YouTube, Health Communication source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [29] RK Zimmerman, 2005, Vaccine criticism on the world wide web, Journal of Medical Internet Research source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Denial of the link between HIV and AIDS frequently involves conspiracist hypotheses, for example that AIDS was created by the U.S. Government.

    “Denial of the link between HIV and AIDS frequently involves conspiracist hypotheses, for example that AIDS was created by the U.S. Government [22]–[24].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [22]–[24]

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The apparent departure from normality of the conspiracist ideation indicator was considered during the SEM modeling via bootstrapping of confidence intervals for the parameter estimates.

    “The apparent departure from normality of the conspiracist ideation indicator is considered during the SEM modeling via boot-strapping of confidence intervals for the parameter estimates.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    People who embrace a laissez-faire vision of the free market are less likely to accept that anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions are warming the planet than people with an egalitarian-communitarian outlook.

    “Polarization is particularly pronounced with respect to climate change: People who embrace a laissez-faire vision of the free market are less likely to accept that anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions are warming the planet than people with an egalitarian-communitarian outlook [2]–[7].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [2]–[7]

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    All items other than those targeting GM foods and vaccinations were used in previous research and have a track record of construct validity.

    “All items other than those targeting GM foods and vaccinations were used in previous research (see Materials for details) and have a track record of construct validity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Media reports have implicated the political Left in opposition to GM foods.

    “Although media reports have implicated the political Left in the opposition to GM foods [10], [11], European surveys have variously associated GM-food rejection with the extreme political Right [12] as well as the political Left [13].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [10] Kloor K (2012). GMO opponents are the climate skeptics of the left. Available: <ext-link xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/science/2012/09/are_gmo_foods_safe_opponents_are_skewing_the_science_to_scare_people_.html" xlink:type="simple">http://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/science/2012/09/are_gmo_foods_safe_opponents_are_skewing_the_science_to_scare_people_.html</ext-link>. Accessed 2012 Sep 29.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [11] ShermerM (2013). The liberals&apos; war on science. Available: <ext-link xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=the-liberals-war-on-science" xlink:type="simple">http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=the-liberals-war-on-science</ext-link>. Accessed 2013 Jan 28.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Media reports have ascribed an anti-vaccine stance to the political Left, largely based on the political leanings of spokespersons.

    “Media reports have ascribed an anti-vaccine stance to the political Left [14], largely based on the political leanings of spokespersons.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [14] Mooney C (2011). The science of why we don&apos;t believe science. Available: <ext-link xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://motherjones.com/politics/2011/03/denial-science-chris-mooney" xlink:type="simple">http://motherjones.com/politics/2011/03/denial-science-chris-mooney</ext-link>).2011 Dec 21.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The bootstrapped confidence intervals for the model did not materially alter any of the conclusions: all regression weights reported retained their significance, with the exception of the link between conservatism and acceptance of vaccinations, which failed to reach conventional significance levels.

    “The bootstrapped confidence intervals for the model in Figure 2 did not materially alter any of the conclusions: All regression weights reported in the figure retained their significance, with the exception of the link between conservatism and acceptance of vaccinations, which failed to reach conventional significance levels ().”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [36] GW Cheung, 2008, Testing mediation and suppression effects of latent variables: Bootstrapping with structural equation models, Organizational Research Methods source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Popular books critical of climate science routinely refer to global warming as a conspiracy or hoax, and conspiracist themes have been identified in climate media coverage and in people's affective imagery evoked by climate change.

    “Popular books critical of climate science routinely refer to global warming as a “conspiracy” or “hoax” [25], and conspiracist themes have been identified in climate media coverage [26] and in people's affective imagery evoked by climate change [21].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [25] Inhofe J (2012) The Greatest Hoax: How the Global Warming Conspiracy Threatens Your Future. Washington, DC: WND Books.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [26] E McKewon, 2012, Duelling realities: Conspiracy theories vs climate science in regional newspaper coverage of Ian Plimer&apos;s book, <italic>Heaven and Earth</italic>, Rural Society source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [21] N Smith, 2012, The rise of global warming skepticism: Exploring affective image associations in the United States over time, Risk Analysis source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Among visitors to climate blogs, the tendency to endorse conspiracy theories has been shown to be correlated with the rejection of climate science as well as the rejection of other scientific propositions.

    “Among visitors to climate blogs, the tendency to endorse conspiracy theories has been shown to be correlated with the rejection of climate science as well as the rejection of other scientific propositions [27].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [27] S Lewandowsky, 2013, NASA faked the moon landing—therefore (climate) science is a hoax: An anatomy of the motivated rejection of science, Psychological Science source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Free-market worldviews are an important predictor of the rejection of scientific findings that have potential regulatory implications, such as climate science, but not necessarily of other scientific issues.

    “Free-market worldviews are an important predictor of the rejection of scientific findings that have potential regulatory implications, such as climate science, but not necessarily of other scientific issues.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The different polarity of the associations with vaccination is consonant with the notion that libertarians object to the government intrusion arising from mandatory vaccination programs, whereas people low on conservatism may oppose immunization because they distrust pharmaceutical companies.

    “The different polarity of those associations is consonant with the notion that libertarians object to the government intrusion arising from mandatory vaccination programs [15], whereas people low on conservatism—who, by implication, are liberal or progressive—may oppose immunization because they distrust pharmaceutical companies [40].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [15] DM Kahan, 2010, Who fears the HPV vaccine, who doesnt, and why? An experimental study of the mechanisms of cultural cognition, Law and Human Behavior source

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    • cites [40] JA Cassell, 2006, Is the cultural context of mmr rejection a key to an effective public health discourse?, Public Health source

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    Premisecitation

    Conspiracy theories rely on isolated morsels of evidence inconsistent with an official account while ignoring overwhelming evidence to the contrary.

    “conspiracy theories rely on isolated morsels of evidence inconsistent with an official account [31] (e.g., that Timothy McVeigh fled the Oklahoma City bombing in a car without licence plates) while ignoring overwhelming evidence to the contrary”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [31] BL Keeley, 1999, Of conspiracy theories, The Journal of Philosophy source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The reverse association has also been found, whereby conspiratorial belief was linked to right-wing authoritarianism.

    “The reverse association has also been found, whereby conspiratorial belief was linked to right-wing authoritarianism [52]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [52] V Swami, 2012, Social psychological origins of conspiracy theories: the case of the Jewish conspiracy theory in Malaysia, Frontiers in Psychology source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    When people are informed of the pervasive consensus about the fundamentals of climate change, they become more likely to endorse the basic premise of global warming, and they attribute a larger share of the observed warming trend to human CO2 emissions.

    “Recent research has shown that the role of worldview may be attenuated by underscoring the breadth of consensus among scientists: When people are informed of the pervasive consensus about the fundamentals of climate change, they become more likely to endorse the basic premise of global warming, and they attribute a larger share of the observed warming trend to human CO2 emissions [37], [38].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [37] D Ding, 2011, Support for climate policy and societal action are linked to perceptions about scientific agreement, Nature Climate Change source

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    • cites [38] S Lewandowsky, 2013, The pivotal role of perceived scientific consensus in acceptance of science, Nature Climate Change source

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    According to the system justification view, scientific findings are rejected by people high in system justification when the evidence challenges the status quo.

    “According to the system justification view, scientific findings are rejected by people high in system justification when the evidence challenges the status quo [42], rather than on”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [42] I Feygina, 2010, System justification, the denial of global warming, and the possibility of “system-sanctioned change”, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin source

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    Interpretationown data

    For the other two scientific propositions, the role of worldview was attenuated and more nuanced, or absent altogether.

    “For the other two scientific propositions, the role of worldview was attenuated and more nuanced, or absent altogether.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Opposition to vaccinations involved a balance between two opposing forces, namely a negative association with free-market endorsement and a compensatory positive association with conservatism.

    “Opposition to vaccinations involved a balance between two opposing forces, namely a negative association with free-market endorsement and a compensatory positive association with conservatism.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Endorsement of conspiracy theories is associated with people's own willingness to engage in a conspiracy themselves when deemed necessary.

    “endorsement of conspiracy theories is also associated with people's own willingness to engage in a conspiracy themselves when deemed necessary [46]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [46] KM Douglas, 2011, Does it take one to know one? Endorsement of conspiracy theories is influenced by personal willingness to conspire, British Journal of Social Psychology source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Simultaneous belief in mutually contradictory theories is a notable aspect of conspiracist ideation.

    “the simultaneous belief in mutually contradictory theories—e.g., that Princess Diana was murdered but faked her own death—is a notable aspect of conspiracist ideation [30]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [30] MJ Wood, 2012, Dead and alive: Beliefs in contradictory conspiracy theories, Social Psychological and Personality Science source

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  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Interpretationown data

    Conspiratorial thinking is more prevalent on the political left than the right.

    “suggesting that conspiratorial thinking is more prevalent on the political left than the right”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Arguments against mainstream climate science are often mutually contradictory.

    “arguments against mainstream climate science are often mutually contradictory, as noted in the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's response to comments on its endangerment finding pertaining to greenhouse gases [48]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [48] EPA (2009) Endangerment and cause or contribute findings for greenhouse gases under section 202(a) of the clean air act: EPAs response to public comments. Technical report, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Anti-vaccination activists ignore overwhelming statistical evidence while focusing on anecdotes or information that has been shown to be false.

    “anti-vaccination activists ignore overwhelming statistical evidence while focusing on anecdotes or information that has been shown to be false [49]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [49] RA Jacobson, 2007, A taxonomy of reasoning flaws in the anti-vaccine movement, Vaccine source

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    Study design and conductown data

    Age did not correlate with any of the indicator variables.

    “Age turned out not to correlate with any of the indicator variables”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    A further 3 items queried scientific propositions that were also used in previous research.

    “A further 3 items queried scientific propositions that were also used in previous research [27], [38].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [27] S Lewandowsky, 2013, NASA faked the moon landing—therefore (climate) science is a hoax: An anatomy of the motivated rejection of science, Psychological Science source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [38] S Lewandowsky, 2013, The pivotal role of perceived scientific consensus in acceptance of science, Nature Climate Change source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    These general and robust findings help identify communicative means by which motivated reasoning can be attenuated or circumvented.

    “These general and robust findings help identify communicative means by which the motivated reasoning can be attenuated or circumvented [5], [32], [38], [50].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [5] DM Kahan, 2010, Fixing the communications failure, Nature source

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    • cites [32] CR Sunstein, 2009, Conspiracy theories: Causes and cures, Journal of Political Philosophy source

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    • cites [38] S Lewandowsky, 2013, The pivotal role of perceived scientific consensus in acceptance of science, Nature Climate Change source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationnone given

    The sample may not have included a sufficiently large number of participants at the extreme end of the ideological spectrum.

    “although our sample was representative, it may not have included a sufficiently large number of participants at the extreme end of the ideological spectrum.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Knowledge of conspiracist ideation's involvement is crucial to permit scientists and communicators to respond appropriately to the rejection of evidence by segments of the public.

    “Knowledge of its involvement is crucial to permit scientists and communicators to respond appropriately to the rejection of evidence by segments of the public.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Only participants who completed all items and passed the attention-filter question were retained for analysis.

    “Only participants who completed all items and passed the attention-filter question were retained for analysis.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductcitation

    A more accurate estimator free of those assumptions was used here.

    “A more accurate estimator free of those assumptions is [69], [70], which was used here.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [69] E Komaroff, 1997, Effect of simultaneous violations of essential tau-equivalence and uncorrelated error on coefficient alpha, Applied Psychological Measurement source

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    • cites [70] T Raykov, 1997, Estimation of composite reliability for congeneric measures, Applied Psychological Measurement source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Climate science is primarily rejected by people on the political right because they tend to be particularly concerned with system justification and hence respond to the threat to the economic status quo that might arise from climate mitigation efforts.

    “climate science is primarily rejected by people on the political right because they tend to be particularly concerned with system justification and hence respond to the threat to the economic status quo that might arise from climate mitigation efforts.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    As latent variables are free of measurement error, none of the estimated effects are attenuated due to measurement error.

    “As latent variables are free of measurement error, none of the estimated effects are attenuated due to measurement error [60].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [60] DL Coffman, 2005, Using parcels to convert path analysis models into latent variable models, Multivariate Behavioral Research source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Participants were drawn from a completely bipartisan panel of more than 5.5 million U.S. residents, via propensity weighting to ensure representativeness.

    “Participants were drawn from a completely bipartisan panel of more than 5.5 million U.S. residents (as of January 2013), via propensity weighting to ensure representativeness.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Questions were presented blocked by topic area in two different orders that were randomly assigned to participants.

    “Questions were presented blocked by topic area in two different orders that were randomly assigned to participants.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Cultural worldviews and conspiratorial thinking both arguably represent mechanisms of motivated reasoning.

    “Irrespective of their statistical association (or lack thereof), they both arguably represent mechanisms of motivated reasoning.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Gender inclusion as a potential mediator in the SEM model did not alter the outcome.

    “although gender exhibited some small associations, its inclusion as a potential mediator in the SEM model (Figure 2) did not alter the outcome”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Cronbach's alpha assumes essential tau-equivalence and independent error variances.

    “Cronbach's assumes essential -equivalence and independent error variances [68]”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [68] Lord FM, Novick MR (1968) Statistical theories of mental test scores. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    It is possible that small specific groups on the political left do indeed reject certain scientific findings-such as GM foods or vaccinations-as suggested by public rhetoric of left-wing spokespersons.

    “It is therefore possible that small specific groups on the political left do indeed reject certain scientific findings—such as GM foods or vaccinations—as is suggested by the public rhetoric of spokespersons that are identified as “left-wing” [10], [11].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [10] Kloor K (2012). GMO opponents are the climate skeptics of the left. Available: <ext-link xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/science/2012/09/are_gmo_foods_safe_opponents_are_skewing_the_science_to_scare_people_.html" xlink:type="simple">http://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/science/2012/09/are_gmo_foods_safe_opponents_are_skewing_the_science_to_scare_people_.html</ext-link>. Accessed 2012 Sep 29.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [11] ShermerM (2013). The liberals&apos; war on science. Available: <ext-link xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=the-liberals-war-on-science" xlink:type="simple">http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=the-liberals-war-on-science</ext-link>. Accessed 2013 Jan 28.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    GM foods are not rejected based on ideology because they do not imperil the economic status quo, thereby eliminating system justification as a driving variable for rejection.

    “GM foods are not rejected based on ideology because they do not imperil the economic status quo, thereby eliminating system justification as a driving variable for rejection.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    One criticism of item parceling is that it may obscure multi-dimensionality.

    “One criticism of item parceling is that it may obscure multi-dimensionality [63].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [63] TD Little, 2002, To parcel or not to parcel: Exploring the question, weighing the merits, Structural Equation Modeling source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    The potential predictor constructs were all based on established instruments that have been repeatedly used in previous research.

    “The potential predictor constructs were all based on established instruments that have been repeatedly used in previous research”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [4] Y Heath, 2006, Free-market ideology and environmental degradation: The case of belief in global climate change, Environment and Behavior source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [59] A Mehrabian, 1996, Relations among political attitudes, personality, and psychopathology assessed with new measures of Libertarianism and Conservatism, Basic and Applied Social Psychology source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [27] S Lewandowsky, 2013, NASA faked the moon landing—therefore (climate) science is a hoax: An anatomy of the motivated rejection of science, Psychological Science source

      Not checked in the free run.

51 of 51

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    No equivalent peer-reviewed research in the U.S. on the political correlates of GM-food rejection exists.

    “We are not aware of any equivalent peer-reviewed research in the U.S.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Broad-based empirical data on the role of conspiracist ideation in science denial are lacking.

    “Notwithstanding the growing prominence of conspiracist ideation in science denial, broad-based empirical data on its role are lacking.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Reliable data on the political Left's opposition to GM foods and vaccinations are lacking.

    “Conversely, opposition to genetically-modified (GM) foods and vaccinations is often ascribed to the political Left although reliable data are lacking.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The propensity weighted internet-panel survey is representative of the U.S. population.

    “We conducted a propensity weighted internet-panel survey of the U.S. population”
4 of 4

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Endorsement of a variety of unrelated conspiracy theories is associated with negative attitudes toward vaccination.

    “Directly relevant to the current investigation, it has recently been shown that endorsement of a variety of unrelated conspiracy theories is associated with negative attitudes toward vaccination [26].”

    From The Effects of Anti-Vaccine Conspiracy Theories on Vaccination Intentions (2014) · cites this paper as [26]

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Tobacco conspiracy item is described as testing a different claim

    Minor

    The methods describe CYTobacco as alleging that the smoking-lung-cancer link is bogus. The questionnaire item instead concerns second-hand smoke and ill health; a respondent could hold different views on those two claims.

1 of 1

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 2

  1. Oreskes N, Conway EM (2010) Merchants of doubt. London: Bloomsbury Publishing.
  2. Lord FM, Novick MR (1968) Statistical theories of mental test scores. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Lewandowsky, S., Gignac, G. E., & Oberauer, K.
Affiliations
The University of Western Australia (AU)
Corresponding author
Lewandowsky, Stephan
ORCID
Venue
PLoS ONE
Publisher
Public Library of Science (PLoS)
Published
2013-10-02
Volume
8
Issue
10
Pages
e75637
ISSN
1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1371/journal.pone.0075637
PMC
PMC3788812
OpenAlex
W2094291381
Semantic Scholar
e482562eab1985e5dc37561c70277e057d8bbf2d
Cited by
693
References
71
Citations by year
2026: 31 · 2025: 62 · 2024: 61 · 2023: 63 · 2022: 105 · 2021: 92 · 2020: 57 · 2019: 43 · 2018: 68 · 2017: 41 · 2016: 27 · 2015: 29 · 2014: 12 · 2013: 2
FWCI
72.26
Type
journal article
Language
en
Update notices
correction (2015-08-13)
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich) (acceptedVersion, cc-by)
  • UWA Profiles and Research Repository (UWA) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
  • Bristol Research (University of Bristol) (submittedVersion)
  • Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Misinformation and Its Impacts
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Climate Change Communication and Perception
  • Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Science and Science Education
Keywords
conspiracist ideation, conspiracy theories, rejection of science, climate change skepticism, public trust in science, political ideology, conservatism, genetically modified foods, vaccine attitudes, science communication
MeSH terms
Attitude, Culture, Data Collection, Female, Humans, Male, Politics, Rejection, Psychology, Science, Models, Statistical

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-09.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-09.

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