Cited by 1,094Misinformation and Its ImpactsParanormal Experiences and BeliefsTerrorism, Counterterrorism, and Political Violence

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Belief in Conspiracy Theories

Goertzel, Ted·1994·Political Psychology

DOI 10.2307/3791630

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Abstract

A survey of 348 residents of southwestern New Jersey showed that most believed that several of a list of 10 conspiracy theories were at least probably true. People who believed in one conspiracy were more likely to also believe in others. Belief in conspiracies was correlated with anomia, lack of interpersonal trust, and insecurity about employment. Black and hispanic respondents were more likely to believe in conspiracy theories than were white respondents. Young people were slightly more likely to believe in conspiracy theories, but there were few significant correlations with gender, educational level, or occupational category.

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Conspiracism in Populist Radical Right Candidates: Rallying the Base or Mainstreaming the Fringe?
Sawyer, P. S. (2021) · International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society · doi:10.1007/s10767-021-09398-4 · Cited by 13
“…to non-believers, conspiracists, who are conceptualized as those who believe in conspiracy theories sans evidence, exhibit monological belief systems which “speak only to themselves” instead of “engaging in dialogue with their context” (Goertzel, 1994).11 This assumes that they have “closed” minds.”
BackgroundInfluential
To What Extent Have Conspiracy Theories Undermined COVID-19: Strategic Narratives?
Drinkwater, K. G., Dagnall, N., Denovan, A., & Walsh, R. S. (2021) · Frontiers in Communication · doi:10.3389/fcomm.2021.576198 · Cited by 16
“, mistrust of authority, cynicism, and suspicion) that facilitate conspiratorial thinking (Goertzel, 1994).”
BackgroundInfluential
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“This “theory-based” approach is derived from the supposition that belief in conspiracies is monological (Goertzel, 1994), whereby endorsement of one theory predicts advocacy of others (Sutton and Douglas, 2014).”
Background
Just a Flu? Self-perceived infection mediates the link between conspiracy beliefs and Covid-19 health beliefs and behaviors
van Prooijen, J., Etienne, T. W., Kutiyski, Y., & Krouwel, A. P. M. (2021) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/13591053211051816 · Cited by 19
“While many different conspiracy theories exist, beliefs in these different theories are typically positively correlated (Goertzel, 1994; Swami et al., 2011; Wood et al., 2012), suggesting a common underlying psychology that enables predictions of when conspiracy beliefs are more likely.”
Background
Trust in crisis
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Mariniello, M. (2022) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198831471.001.0001 · Cited by 16
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When the sun goes down: low political knowledge and high national narcissism predict climate change conspiracy beliefs
Michalski, P., Marchlewska, M., Górska, P., Rogoza, M., Molenda, Z., & Szczepańska, D. (2023) · The Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224545.2023.2237176 · Cited by 17
“The fact that the above-mentioned psychological characteristics have been related to various forms of conspiracy beliefs may suggest that these beliefs share a common core related to individual differences and information processing (Goertzel, 1994).”
The Plot Thickens: A Sociology of Conspiracy Theories
Rao, H., & Greve, H. R. (2024) · Annual Review of Sociology · doi:10.1146/annurev-soc-030222-031142 · Cited by 20
Population Control, Deadly Vaccines, and Mutant Mosquitoes: The Construction and Circulation of Zika Virus Conspiracy Theories Online
Mitchell, S. S. D. (2019) · Canadian Journal of Communication · doi:10.22230/cjc.2019v44n2a3329 · Cited by 16
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de Zavala, A. G. (2020) · Identity in a changing world · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-38270-4_12 · Cited by 21
“Conspiracy theories are explanations for events that—typically without evidence— assume secretive, malevolent plots involving multiple actors: a mysterious ‗them‘ who ‗run‘ things and work against ‗us‘ (Abalakina-Paap, Stephan, Craig & Gregory, 1999; Goertzel, 1994; van Prooijen & van Lange, 2014).”
Background
User Engagement with Digital Deception
Glenski, M., Volkova, S., & Kumar, S. (2020) · Lecture notes in social networks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-42699-6_3 · Cited by 19
Misinformation in Germany During the Covid-19 Pandemic
Leuker, C., Eggeling, L. M., Fleischhut, N., Gubernath, J., Gumenik, K., Hechtlinger, S., Kozyreva, A., Samaan, L., & Hertwig, R. (2022) · European Journal of Health Communication · doi:10.47368/ejhc.2022.202 · Cited by 16
Belief Inconsistency in Conspiracy Theorists
Irwin, H. J., Dagnall, N., & Drinkwater, K. G. (2015) · Comprehensive Psychology · doi:10.2466/17.cp.4.19 · Cited by 21
The Politics of Disruption
Atkinson, M., & DeWitt, D. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0008 · Cited by 17
Prophets and Loss: How “Soft Facts” on Social Media Influenced the Brexit Campaign and Social Reactions to the Murder of Jo Cox MP
Dobreva, D., Grinnell, D., & Innes, M. (2019) · Policy & Internet · doi:10.1002/poi3.203 · Cited by 20
“In terms of belief in conspiracy theories, work in social psychology has identified a number of underlying conditions, such as anomie and alienation (Goertzel, 1994), feelings of powerlessness (Hofstadter, 1964), “enemyship” (Sullivan et al.”
Background
“Is It Legit, To You?”. An Exploration of Players’ Perceptions of Cheating in a Multiplayer Video Game: Making Sense of Uncertainty
Boldi, A., & Rapp, A. (2023) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2023.2204276 · Cited by 15
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Evil perceptions mediate the association between trait anger and generic conspiracy beliefs
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Public sector corruption is fertile ground for conspiracy beliefs: A comparison between 26 Western and non‐Western countries
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“Beliefs in conspiracy theories are associated with increased political cynicism (Swami, 2012), decreased interpersonal trust (Frenken and Imhoff, 2023) and trust in authorities (Goertzel, 1994), decreased political participation (Ardèvol-Abreu etal.”
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Hawley, K. (2019) · Philosophical Studies · doi:10.1007/s11098-018-1222-4 · Cited by 22
“(Goertzel 1994: 732) A quarter-century later things have changed: Goertzel’s article has classic status in a burgeoning empirical literature on these topics.”
Background
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Fousiani, K., & van Prooijen, J. (2019) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12320 · Cited by 17
“Conspiracy beliefs are moderately related with, but conceptually distinct from, distrust (Goertzel, 1994; Van Prooijen & De Vries, 2016).”
Background
‘For whom the sovereignist Bell Tolls?’ Individual determinants of support for sovereignism in ten European countries
Basile, L., Borri, R., & Verzichelli, L. (2019) · European Politics and Society · doi:10.1080/23745118.2019.1633035 · Cited by 16
“Psychological research supports the idea that compliance to such a Manichean rhetoric is particularly recurrent among individuals who share specific latent attitudes (Goertzel, 1994; Silva, Vegetti, & Littvay, 2017; Wood, Douglas, & Sutton, 2012) or, more precisely, a ‘monological belief system’ (Goertzel, 1994), maki…”
BackgroundInfluential
The contagiousness of memes: containing the spread of COVID-19 conspiracy theories in a forensic psychiatric hospital
Panchal, R., & Jack, A. H. (2020) · BJPsych Bulletin · doi:10.1192/bjb.2020.120 · Cited by 16
The socio-psychological predictors of support for post-truth collective action
Mashuri, A., Putra, I. E., Kavanagh, C. M., Zaduqisti, E., Sukmawati, F., Sakdiah, H., & Selviana, S. (2021) · The Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224545.2021.1935678 · Cited by 16
“Goertzel (1994) argued that conspiratorial thinking reflects “a monological belief system”, denoting that when endorsing certain conspiracy theories, people are more likely to believe in other, unrelated conspiracy theories.”
Background
Introducing conspiracy intuitions to better understand conspiracy beliefs.
Roberts, R., & Risen, J. L. (2022) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101395 · Cited by 15
Deprived, Radical, Alternatively Informed
Ziegele, M., Resing, M., Frehmann, K., Jackob, N., Jakobs, I., Quiring, O., Schemer, C., Schultz, T., & Viehmann, C. (2022) · European Journal of Health Communication · doi:10.47368/ejhc.2022.205 · Cited by 15
“That is because people who believe in a specific conspiracy theory (CT) often believe in other conspiracies as well (Goertzel, 1994), sometimes even when the CT logically contradict each other (Wood et al.”
BackgroundInfluential
Conspiracism on social media: An agenda melding of group-mediated deceptions
Bantimaroudis, P., Sideri, M., Ballas, D., Panagiotidis, T., & Ziogas, T. (2020) · International Journal of Media and Cultural Politics · doi:10.1386/macp_00020_1 · Cited by 19
Understanding the power of conspiratorial rhetoric: A case study of the protocols of the elders of Zion
Hasian, M. A. (1997) · Communication Studies · doi:10.1080/10510979709368501 · Cited by 15
WHY SOME HESITATE MORE: CROSS-CULTURAL VARIATION IN CONSPIRACY BELIEFS, BELIEF IN SCIENCE, AND VACCINE ATTITUDESPreprint
Salalι, G. D., & Uysal, M. S. (2021) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2021.07.09.21260228 · Cited by 15
Онлайн-дейтинг: рынок или базар? Процесс поиска брачной пары на православном сайте знакомств
Galitsina, K., Kalinovskaya, P., & Khvorostianova, O. (2022) · Journal of Economic Sociology · doi:10.17323/1726-3247-2022-2-65-90 · Cited by 16
Belief in conspiracy theories and satisfaction in interpersonal relationships
Toribio‐Flórez, D., Green, R., & Douglas, K. M. (2024) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/jasp.13061 · Cited by 16
Does Lower Psychological Need Satisfaction Foster Conspiracy Belief? Longitudinal Effects Over 3 Years in New Zealand
Albath, E. A., Greifeneder, R., Douglas, K. M., Cichocka, A. K., Marques, M. D., Wilson, M., Kerr, J. R., Sibley, C. G., & Osborne, D. (2024) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/01461672241292841 · Cited by 17
“Given that belief in one conspiracy theory correlates positively with believing in another (Goertzel, 1994), people may have a tendency to believe that malevolent groups conspire, as well as a predisposition to distrust official accounts of impactful events (Bruder et al., 2013).”
Identifying Twitter users who repost unreliable news sources with linguistic information
Mu, Y., & Αλέτρας, Ν. (2020) · PeerJ Computer Science · doi:10.7717/peerj-cs.325 · Cited by 14
“• Conspiracy theories can be understood as a kind of distorted interpretation of real events from people with ulterior motives such as political and religious groups (Goertzel, 1994; Byford, 2011).”
Background
COVID-19: Belief in Conspiracy Theories and the Need for Quarantine
Егорова, М., Parshikova, O. V., Chertkova, Y. D., Staroverov, V. M., & Mitina, O. V. (2020) · Psychology in Russia State of Art · doi:10.11621/pir.2020.0401 · Cited by 14
Conceptualizing Conspiratorial Thinking: Explicating Public Conspiracism for Effective Debiasing Strategy
Kim, J., & Lee, S.-Y. S. (2023) · American Behavioral Scientist · doi:10.1177/00027642231175637 · Cited by 14
“Earlier studies of conspiracy theories considered conspiratorial thinking as if it were only of one kind (e.g., a personal psychological tendency, Goertzel, 1994).”
Pathways to conspiracy: the social and linguistic precursors of involvement in Reddit's conspiracy theory forumPreprint
Klein, C., Clutton, P., & Dunn, A. G. (2018) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/8vesf · Cited by 14
Belief in AIDS Origin Conspiracy Theory and Willingness to Participate in Biomedical Research Studies: Findings in Whites, Blacks, and Hispanics in Seven Cities Across Two Surveys
Russell, S. L., Katz, R. V., Wang, M. Q., Lee, R., Green, B. L., Kressin, N. R., & Claudio, C. (2011) · HIV Clinical Trials · doi:10.1310/hct1201-37 · Cited by 13
Deflected by the tin foil hat? Word‐of‐mouth , conspiracy beliefs, and the adoption of innovative public health apps
Kraemer, T., Weiger, W. H., Trang, S. T.-N., & Trenz, M. (2022) · Journal of Product Innovation Management · doi:10.1111/jpim.12646 · Cited by 16
How does Information Exposure Affect Public Attitudes Toward GMO in China? The mediating and moderating roles of Conspiracy Belief and Knowledge
Du, Z., Xiao, Y., & Xu, J. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.955541 · Cited by 13
“Conspiracy theory is construed to explain major social and political events by a small group of people out of self-interest and against public interest (Goertzel, 1994; Douglas and Sutton, 2008; Uscinski and Parent, 2014; Green and Douglas, 2018).”
Background
Belief in White Replacement
Klofstad, C., Christley, O. R., Diekman, A. B., Kübler, S., Enders, A. M., Funchion, J., Littrell, S., Murthi, M. N., Premaratne, K., Seelig, M. I., et al. (2024) · Politics Groups and Identities · doi:10.1080/21565503.2024.2342834 · Cited by 13
The burden of being certain: National identity certainty predicts support for COVID‐Related restrictive measures and outgroup conspiracy beliefs
Chen, K., Zhang, J., Ao, X., & Ramdass, J. V. (2022) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/jasp.12868 · Cited by 13
“…(outgroup) for COVID- 19 and conspiracy beliefs that blame U.S. government (ingroup) for COVID- 19 and then computed a difference score.1 Following examples of existing research (e.g., Goertzel, 1994; Romer & Jamieson, 2020), we developed four items about COVID- related conspiracy theories.”
Method
Reducing teachers' unfounded beliefs through critical‐thinking education: A non‐r andomized controlled trial
Caroti, D., Adam‐Troian, J., & Arciszewski, T. (2022) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3969 · Cited by 14
The psychological study of conspiracy theories: Strengths and limitations
van Prooijen, J., & Imhoff, R. (2022) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101465 · Cited by 13
Beliefs About the Strauss-Kahn Case in France and Germany: Political Orientation and Sexual Aggression Myths as Local Versus Global Predictors
Helmke, S., Kobusch, P., Rees, J. H., Meyer, T., & Bohner, G. (2013) · doi:10.4119/ijcv-3052 · Cited by 14
"Is it a Qoincidence?": A First Step Towards Understanding and Characterizing the QAnon Movement on Voat.co
Papasavva, A., Blackburn, J., Stringhini, G., Zannettou, S., & Cristofaro, E. D. (2020) · MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) · Cited by 13
Cognitive reflection and the coronavirus conspiracy beliefsPreprint
Sadeghiyeh, H., Ahmadi, I. K., Farhadbeigi, P., & Karimi, N. (2020) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/p9wxj · Cited by 13
“I Know Things They Don’t Know!” The Role of Need for Uniqueness in Belief in Conspiracy TheoriesPreprint
Lantian, A., Dominique Muller, B., Nurra, C., & Douglas, K. M. (2017) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/zm9a6 · Cited by 13
Théories du complot et COVID-19 : comment naissent les croyances complotistes ?
Bottemanne, H. (2022) · L Encéphale · doi:10.1016/j.encep.2021.12.005 · Cited by 17
“Le terme de théorie du complot est apparu dans les années 1860, faisant initialement référence à l’hypothèse selon laquelle des personnes ou des groupes perç us comme puissants élaboreraient secrètement un plan pour nuire à un individu unique, un ensemble d’individus, ou à la société [39].”
Influential
Does communist nostalgia lead to COVID-19 conspiracy beliefs?
Ramonaitė, A. (2022) · European Societies · doi:10.1080/14616696.2022.2132525 · Cited by 13
“It has been observed that people who believe in some conspiracy theories tend to believe in others, even if they contradict each other (Goertzel 1994; Miller 2020; Swami et al. 2011).”
Background
Partisan Bias in COVID-19 Conspiracy Theories: News Reliance and the Moderating Role of Trust in Health Authorities
Wu, Y., Kuru, O., Baruh, L., Çarkoğlu, A., Cemalcılar, Z., & Yıldırım, K. (2023) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2023.2181678 · Cited by 11
“…are less likely to believe anti-government CCTs questions the explanation of the monological belief system in conspiracy theories, which claims explicitly that conspiracy beliefs are strongly correlated with each other and people who believe in one are likely to believe another (Goertzel, 1994).”
Background
Does personal relative deprivation mediate the relationship between passive social media use and beliefs in conspiracy theories? Cross‐sectional correlational and experimental evidence
Gkinopoulos, T., Pagliaro, S., Pacilli, M. G., Bilewicz, M., Teresi, M., & Ballone, C. (2023) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.3002 · Cited by 14
Religion, spirituality, and susceptibility to conspiracy theories: examining the role of analytic thinking and post-critical beliefs
Jedinger, A., & Siegers, P. (2024) · Politics and Religion · doi:10.1017/s1755048324000130 · Cited by 17
“Based on the observation that specific beliefs tend to form a coherent belief system (Goertzel, 1994), conspiracy mentality referes to a general disposition to explain events as controlled by malicious forces acting in secret (Imhoff and Bruder, 2014).”
Background
Does Developing a Belief in One Conspiracy Theory Lead a Person to be More Likely to Believe in Others?
Williams, M. N., Marques, M. D., Kerr, J. R., Hill, S. R., Ling, M., & Clarke, E. J. R. (2025) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.3153 · Cited by 12
Combler le fossé. L’avenir des recherches sur les théories du complot
Bütter, M., Knight, P., & Albert, N. G. (2016) · Diogène · doi:10.3917/dio.249.0021 · Cited by 12
Conspiratorial thinking in the Latino community on the 2020 election
Cortina, J., & Rottinghaus, B. (2022) · Research & Politics · doi:10.1177/20531680221083535 · Cited by 11
“In effect, conspiracy theories revolve around secret plots by “powerful” and “malevolent” groups seeking money or power at the expense of the public and are deceptive or corrupt (Goertzel 1994).”
BackgroundInfluential
Exploring vaccine hesitancy: the twofold role of critical thinking
Cannito, L., Ceccato, I., Bortolotti, A., Crosta, A. D., Malva, P. L., Palumbo, R., Domenico, A. D., & Palumbo, R. (2022) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-022-04165-w · Cited by 12
“One of the first psychological contributions on this topic supported the hypothesis that conspiracy beliefs are defined by a “monological functioning”, as believing in one conspiracy theory is associated with believing in all conspiracy theories (Goertzel, 1994).”
Background
Searching for meaning through conspiracy theories. Considerations on the state of the art of psychological literature and definition of a research agenda from a semiotic dynamic cultural perspective
Fortuna, A. M. D., & Picione, R. D. L. (2024) · Culture & Psychology · doi:10.1177/1354067x241246760 · Cited by 14
“…it is now possible to gain a deeper understanding of the productivity attribute that Goertzel (1994) attributes to some conspiracy theories: in some ways, conspiracy thinking can be considered productive because it can also generate new thought patterns in response to novelty (Goertzel, 1994).”
Influential
Still Very Much Dead and Alive: Incoherence in Conspiracism as a Departure from Bayesian RationalityPreprint
Miani, A., Lewandowsky, S., & Cruz, N. (2024) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/t6a54 · Cited by 12
Conceptual Approaches to the Study of Spatial Inequality: the Case of Russian Education
Adamovich, K. (2022) · Journal of Economic Sociology · doi:10.17323/1726-3247-2022-2-147-161 · Cited by 10
The role of defense styles and psychopathological symptoms on adherence to conspiracy theories during the COVID-19 pandemic
Gioia, F., Imperato, C., Boursier, V., Franceschini, C., Schimmenti, A., & Musetti, A. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-30531-0 · Cited by 14
Are accuracy discernment and sharing of COVID-19 misinformation associated with older age and lower neurocognitive functioning?
Matchanova, A., Woods, S. P., Neighbors, C., Medina, L. D., Podell, K., Beltran‐Najera, I., Alex, C., Babicz, M. A., & Thompson, J. L. (2023) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-023-04464-w · Cited by 13
“…demographic and psychosocial individual factors that are associated with higher susceptibility to misinformation include gender, ethnicity, education, cognition, and health literacy (e.g., Freeman et al., 2020; Goertzel, 1994; Roozenbeek et al., 2020; Schaeffer, 2020; Van Prooijen et al., 2018).”
Conspiracy Narratives as a Type of Social Myth
Chlup, R. (2023) · International Journal of Politics Culture and Society · doi:10.1007/s10767-023-09454-1 · Cited by 11
“It is due to this “spiral of distrust“ that people who believe in one conspiracy theory are more likely to believe in others as well (Goertzel, 1994).”
Conspiracy Beliefs and Consumption: The Role of Scientific Literacy
Allred, N., & Bolton, L. E. (2024) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1093/jcr/ucae024 · Cited by 11
Analytic adolescents prevail over fake news – A large-scale preregistered study
Faragó, L., Orosz, G., Paskuj, B., & Krekó, P. (2024) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2024.112747 · Cited by 17
Engaging with Conspiracy Believers
Douglas, K. M., Sutton, R. M., Biddlestone, M., Green, R., & Toribio‐Flórez, D. (2024) · Review of Philosophy and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s13164-024-00741-0 · Cited by 14
Beliefs in COVID-19 Vaccine Misinformation Among Unvaccinated Black Americans: Prevalence, Socio-Psychological Predictors, and Consequences
Wang, Y., Thier, K., Ntiri, S. O., Quinn, S. C., Adebamowo, C., & Nan, X. (2023) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2023.2179711 · Cited by 12
“Goertzel (1994) conducted a survey and asked participants to rate the truthfulness of 10 conspiracy theories; the author found that individuals who believed in one conspiracy theory were more likely to also believe in other conspiracy theories.”
Background
Threat by Association, Islamic Puritanism and Conspiracy Beliefs Explain A Religious Majority Group’s Collective Protest Against Religious Minority Groups
Mashuri, A., & Osteen, C. M. (2023) · Psychology and Developing Societies · doi:10.1177/09713336231152312 · Cited by 11
“Second, the general model of conspiracy theory as a monological belief system suggests that when people endorse one conspiracy, they tend to also endorse other conspiracies (Goertzel, 1994).”
Background
Im Feld der Verschwörungstheorien – Interaktionsregeln und kollektive Identitäten einer verschwörungstheoretischen Bewegung
Buchmayr, F. (2019) · Österreichische Zeitschrift für Soziologie · doi:10.1007/s11614-019-00385-w · Cited by 11
Analytic Thinking and Political Orientation in the Corona Crisis
Maglić, M., Pavlovic, T. M., & Franc, R. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.631800 · Cited by 10
“It has been well-documented that endorsement of specific conspiracy theories is associated with greater beliefs in other conspiracy theories (Goertzel, 1994; Swami et al., 2010; Lewandowsky et al., 2013; Majima, 2015), even when conspiracy theories themselves are contradictory (Wood et al., 2012).”
Background
What Drives Belief in COVID-19 Conspiracy Theories? Examining the Role of Uncertainty, Negative Emotions, and Perceived Relevance and Threat
Lee, T., & Koo, G. H. (2022) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2022.2134703 · Cited by 11
“…are usually measured through individuals’ agreement with specific conspiracy claims, research has shown that people with a general willingness to believe conspiracy theories (i.e., conspiratorial thinking) are likely to accept specific conspiracy theories (Goertzel, 1994; Uscinski et al., 2016).”
Background
Contesting science for Islam: the media as a source of revisionist knowledge in the lives of young Bangladeshis
Samuel, G. B., & Rozario, S. (2010) · Contemporary South Asia · doi:10.1080/09584935.2010.526196 · Cited by 11
“The belief in conspiracy theories is not of course confined to Muslims in Bangladesh, or even to the US far right (see, for example, Goertzel 1994; Waters 1997; Featherstone 2001; Spark 2001).”
Background
Resolving the puzzle of conspiracy worldview and political activism: Belief in secret plots decreases normative but increases non-normative political engagement.
Imhoff, R., Dieterle, L., & Lamberty, P. (2019) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/v4pb9 · Cited by 7
Making Sense of Jiese: An Interview Study of Members from a Porn-Free Self-Help Forum in China
Zou, W., Zhang, X., & He, J. (2022) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-022-02456-8 · Cited by 10
“…of anxieties mentioned previously and the conspiracy theory were simultaneously presented in participants’ narratives, echoing previous research that jieyou’s conspiracy belief was closely connected with the feelings of powerlessness (Goertzel, 1994) and lack of control (Kofta et al., 2020).”
Result
Conspiracy thinking and the long historical shadow of Romanticism on authoritarian politics
Smallpage, S., Askew, R. L., Kurlander, E., & Rust, J. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1185699 · Cited by 10
“The study of conspiracy thinking has been moored by conceptual and measurement debates (Goertzel, 1994; Brotherton et al., 2013; Bruder et al., 2013; Oliver and Wood, 2018; Douglas et al., 2019; Enders and Smallpage, 2019; Uscinski and Enders, 2022).”
Background
Right-Wing Authoritarian Attitudes, Fast-Paced Decision-Making, and the Spread of Misinformation About COVID-19 Vaccines
Schulte-Cloos, J., & Anghel, V. (2023) · Political Communication · doi:10.1080/10584609.2023.2291538 · Cited by 15
“Scholars concerned with the study of anti-vaccination beliefs contend that these are best understood as part of a larger belief system (Goertzel, 1994; Lewandowsky et al., 2013; Wood & Wood, 2017).”
Background
Conspiracy Theories as Productive Practices: Toward a Theory of Conspiratorial Style, Agency, and Politics
Sağlam, E. (2024) · Annual Review of Anthropology · doi:10.1146/annurev-anthro-041422-125802 · Cited by 10
Conspiracy Beliefs and the Perception of Intergroup Inequalities
Nera, K., Douglas, K. M., Bertin, P., Delouvée, S., & Klein, O. (2024) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/01461672241279085 · Cited by 11
Exploring How Parasocial Intergroup Contact With Transgender Influencers on TikTok Reduces Transgender Conspiracy Beliefs
Jolley, D., Paterson, J. L., Deric, D., Lovato, T., & McCarthy, J. (2024) · Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/casp.70020 · Cited by 10
Organizational costs of compensating for mind-body dissonance through conspiracies and superstitions
Huang, L. Y., & Whitson, J. (2019) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2019.09.006 · Cited by 10
Lacking control – analysing the demand side of populist party support
Heinisch, R., & Jansesberger, V. (2022) · European Politics and Society · doi:10.1080/23745118.2022.2150027 · Cited by 12
“Drawing on theory of ideational populism laid out above, it follows that ideas can be politically activated and translated into party support (Castanho Silva et al., 2017; Goertzel, 1994; Hawkins & Rovira Kaltwasser, 2018; Wood et al., 2012).”
Background
From Conspiracy Orientation to Conspiracy Attribution: The Effects of Institutional Trust and Demographic Differences
Tam, L., & Lee, H. (2023) · American Behavioral Scientist · doi:10.1177/00027642231174330 · Cited by 13
“…individuals’ subscription of allegations regarding secret plots by powerful organizations and people to achieve self-interested goals by deceiving publics (Douglas et al., 2017, 2019; Wood & Douglas, 2015) such as individuals’ tendency to attribute agency and intentionality (Douglas et al., 2016).”
Investigating Memorization of Conspiracy Theories in Text Generation
Levy, S., Saxon, M., & Wang, W. Y. (2021) · Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: ACL (Findings of ACL) · doi:10.18653/v1/2021.findings-acl.416 · Cited by 18
“A conspiracy theory is the belief, contrary to a more probable explanation, that the true account for an event or situation is concealed from the public (Goertzel, 1994).”
Background
Paranoid styles and innumeracy: implications of a conspiracy mindset on Europeans' misperceptions about immigrants
Martini, S., Guidi, M., Olmastroni, F., Basile, L., Borri, R., & Isernia, P. (2021) · Italian Political Science Review/Rivista Italiana di Scienza Politica · doi:10.1017/ipo.2021.26 · Cited by 11
“…opinion formation Belief in conspiracy theories derives from an underneath conspiracy ideation, a monological belief system resulting in a connection of interrelated and self-reinforcing cognitions that shape a worldview (Moscovici, 1987; Goertzel, 1994; Sutton and Douglas, 2014; Bost 2018).”
BackgroundInfluential
The Societal Impacts of Covid-19: A Transnational Perspective
Bozkurt, V., Dawes, G. D., Gülerce, H., & Westenbroek, P. (2021) · Istanbul University Press eBooks · doi:10.26650/b/ss49.2021.006 · Cited by 19
Conspiracy Stress or Relief? Learned Helplessness and Conspiratorial Thinking
Farhart, C. E., Miller, J. M., & Saunders, K. L. (2022) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197578384.003.0011 · Cited by 10
Can Debunked Conspiracy Theories Change Radicalized Views? Evidence from Racial Prejudice and Anti-China Sentiment Amid the COVID-19 Pandemic
Liu, T.-Y., Guan, T., & Yuan, R.-D. (2022) · Journal of Chinese Political Science · doi:10.1007/s11366-022-09832-0 · Cited by 10
Social Bots and Social Media Manipulation in 2020: The Year in ReviewPreprint
Chang, H.-C. H., Chen, E., Zhang, M., Murić, G., & Ferrara, E. (2021) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2102.08436 · Cited by 10
Почему важна демография
Dorling, D., & Gietel‐Basten, S. (2022) · Journal of Economic Sociology · doi:10.17323/1726-3247-2022-2-36-64 · Cited by 8
When alienated from society, conspiracy theory belief gives meaning to life
Schnell, T., Viviani, R., Lenz, C., & Krampe, H. (2024) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e34557 · Cited by 11
Toward a Cultural Psychology of Conspiracy Theories: A life-narrative analysis of Flat Earthers
Pahuus, K., Jørgensen, M. S., & Wagoner, B. (2024) · Integrative Psychological and Behavioral Science · doi:10.1007/s12124-024-09857-5 · Cited by 9
Conspiracy Theories and their Believers
Stockemer, D., & Bordeleau, J. (2025) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009570794 · Cited by 10
Cover Ups and Conspiracy Theories: Demographics, Work Disenchantment, Equity Sensitivity, and Beliefs in Cover-ups
Furnham, A. F., & Horne, G. (2022) · Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.5093/jwop2022a2 · Cited by 9
“That is, many people who have a “conspiracist worldview” happily accept and integrate new CTs on a wide range of issues (Goertzel, 1994; Swami et al., 2011; Wood et al., 2012).”
Background
Trust Nobody: How Voters React to Conspiracy Theories
Invernizzi, G. M., & Mohamed, A. E. (2022) · Journal of Experimental Political Science · doi:10.1017/xps.2022.11 · Cited by 9
“Given the timing of our study during the Trump’s administration, this suggests that conspiracy theories might be more effective among groups that feel more politically alienated, in accordance with the existing literature (e.g., Goertzel 1994; Uscinski and Parent 2014)”
Result
Escaping the Reality of the Pandemic: The Role of Hopelessness and Dissociation in COVID-19 Denialism
Ciacchella, C., Veneziani, G., Bagni, C., Campedelli, V., CASALE, A. D., & Lai, C. (2022) · Journal of Personalized Medicine · doi:10.3390/jpm12081302 · Cited by 9
“In this regard, previous studies have reported that people who trust their communities show lower levels of hopelessness about the future [22,23], as well as a lower tendency to endorse theories of denialism [24].”
Background
Religions and Conspiracy Theories as the Authoritarian “Other” of Democracy?
Hidalgo, O. F. (2022) · Politics and Governance · doi:10.17645/pag.v10i4.5826 · Cited by 12
“…theory as religion examines the philosophical, psychological, cognitive, and emotional underpinnings that characterise both cultural concepts, generally emphasising that belief is the most impor‐ tant dimension of both conspiracy theories and religions (cf. Bronner, 2003, 2011; Goertzel, 1994).”
Background
Core social motives explain responses to collective action issues
Geiger, N., & Brick, C. (2023) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.12732 · Cited by 13

Authors: Goertzel, T.
Corresponding author: Goertzel, Ted
ORCID: Goertzel, Ted
Venue: Political Psychology
Publisher: JSTOR
Published: 1994-12
Volume: 15
Issue: 4
Pages: 731
ISSN: 0162-895X (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.2307/3791630
OpenAlex: W2315116440
Cited by: 1,094
References: 15
Citations by year: 2026: 64 · 2025: 85 · 2024: 119 · 2023: 111 · 2022: 171 · 2021: 140 · 2020: 89 · 2019: 58 · 2018: 46 · 2017: 34 · 2016: 23 · 2015: 34 · 2014: 23 · 2013: 26 · 2012: 10
FWCI: 1.71
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Political Psychology (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Misinformation and Its Impacts
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Paranormal Experiences and Beliefs
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Terrorism, Counterterrorism, and Political Violence
Keywords: conspiracy theories, conspiracy beliefs, anomie, interpersonal trust, job insecurity, racial differences, age differences

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