When Tribal Sovereignty Challenges Democracy: American Indian Education and the Democratic Ideal

May combine two claims.

These gains have often been short-lived or localized, and strictly circumscribed by federal powers.

“These gains, however, have often been short-lived or localized, and they have been strictly circumscribed by federal powers.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Throughout the 20th century, gains have been made in Native input into, or control over, educational processes and institutions.

“Throughout the 20th century, gains have been made in Native input into, or control over, educational processes and institutions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The costs of Indian education have largely been borne by Indian people.

“the costs of Indian education have largely been borne by Indian people.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Of the 500,000 American Indian students in U.S. schools, it has been predicted that 60% will leave school before graduating.

“Of the 500,000 American Indian students in U.S. schools, it has been predicted that 60% will leave school before graduating (National Center for Education Statistics, 1995).”

• cites National Center for Education Statistics, 1995Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Despite the systemic and sustained effort to eradicate American Indian cultural and linguistic distinctiveness, American Indians have survived as distinctive and productive peoples.

“Despite this systemic and sustained effort, American Indians have survived as distinctive and productive peoples.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: All Native peoples in the United States share a singular legal-political status in terms of their relationship to the U.S. government.

May combine two claims.

Standardization has marginalized Native peoples while masquerading as a tool for equal opportunity.

“While masquerading as a tool for equal opportunity, standardization has marginalized Native peoples.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Beginning in third grade, approximately half the day in the Rough Rock program would be devoted to instruction in Navajo and half to English.

“Beginning in third grade, approximately half the day would be devoted to instruction in Navajo and half to English.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In 1998, the Rough Rock School received two federal grants for a pre-K-12 Navajo immersion/language maintenance program.

“With these teachers' support, in 1998 the Rough Rock School received two federal grants for a pre-K-12 Navajo immersion/language maintenance program.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

When Indigenous initiatives have crossed the line between allowable, safe difference and radical, threatening difference, federal control has been reasserted in explicit, diffuse, and constricting ways.

“When Indigenous initiatives have crossed the line between allowable, safe difference and radical, threatening difference, federal control has been reasserted in explicit, diffuse, and unmistakably constricting ways.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

In the last century-and-a-half, schools have purposefully and systematically worked to eradicate Native languages, religions, beliefs, and practices.

“In the last century-and-a-half, schools have purposefully and systematically worked to eradicate Native languages, religions, beliefs, and practices.”

May combine two claims.

The Meriam Report's unprecedented idea was that Indian people should have the power to make choices and that the federal government should support them in their choices.

“What was unprecedented in their proposal was the idea that Indian people should have the power to make choices and that the federal government should support them in their choices”

• cites Meriam et al., 1928Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The Meriam Report was an excoriating critique of the Office of Indian Affairs and is still viewed as a watershed in Indian education.

“The report was an excoriating critique of the work of the Office of Indian Affairs, and because of its impact the Meriam Report is still viewed as a watershed in Indian education.”

• cites Meriam et al., 1928Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

American Indian children have been at the very center of the battleground between federal powers and tribal sovereignty.

“American Indian children have been at the very center of the battleground between federal powers and tribal sovereignty; the war has been waged through them and about them”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Indigenous community-controlled schools and bilingual/bicultural programs are hyper-regulated and hugely underresourced, and have waged an ongoing battle simply to survive.

“Hyper-regulated and hugely underresourced, Indigenous community-controlled schools and bilingual/bicultural programs have waged an ongoing battle simply to survive.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The Rough Rock case is representative enough of Indigenous community-controlled schools and bilingual/bicultural programs to support general conclusions about them.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

The relationship between tribal sovereignty and federal sovereignty need not be an adversarial one.

“We believe that the relationship between tribal sovereignty and federal sovereignty need not be an adversarial one.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

At the precipice of an irredeemable loss of their languages, tribes and their educational institutions face escalating pressures for standardization, reflected in high-stakes tests and the coupling of those tests with school funding.

“Now, at the precipice of an irredeemable loss of their languages, tribes and their educational institutions face escalating pressures for standardization, reflected in high-stakes tests and the coupling of those tests with school funding.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Indian experiences and survival point the way toward the best possibilities inherent in the critical-democratic ideal.

“Indian experiences and survival point the way toward the best possibilities inherent in the critical-democratic ideal”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

American Indian survival-of peoples, cultural practices, and languages-constitutes real and meaningful diversity at the heart of the nation.

“American Indian survival—of peoples, cultural practices, and languages— constitutes real and meaningful diversity at the heart of our nation.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: American Indian people insist on surviving on their own terms, as real human beings, not as celluloid manifestations of a mythic fantasy or as passive and powerless victims.

May combine two claims.

Tribes have a singular legal status that both predates and is recognized by the U.S. Constitution.

“Tribes have a singular legal status that both predates and is recognized by the U.S. Constitution.”

May combine two claims.

Increasingly, Indigenous schools face the dilemma of doing Indigenous education while complying with high-stakes tests that devalue local knowledge and jeopardize children's life opportunities by threatening to deny them a high school degree.

“Increasingly, Indigenous schools face the dilemma of “doing” Indigenous education while complying with high-stakes tests that devalue local knowledge and jeopardize children's life opportunities by threatening to deny them a high school degree.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

How the U.S. government and its nontribal citizens have treated American Indians in the past and continue to wrestle with their relationship with tribes lies at the core of whether social justice and democracy can coexist.

“How the U.S. government and its nontribal citizens have treated American Indians in the past and how they continue to wrestle with their relationship with tribes lie at the core of the question of whether social justice and democracy can coexist.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The choices that Native communities make need not be either-or choices, nor must there be an immutable dividing line between Indigenous and nontribal citizens.

“The choices that Native communities make need not be either-or choices, nor must there be an immutable dividing line between Indigenous and nontribal citizens.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

American Indian community-controlled schools are prime arenas for the exercise of Indigenous leadership and education control.

“As is suggested by their name, these schools are prime arenas for the exercise of Indigenous leadership and education control.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Indigenous peoples can survive, and are surviving, without their heritage languages.

“Indigenous peoples can survive, and are surviving, without their heritage languages.”

May combine two claims.

Standardized testing standardizes inequality and ensures that existing race- and class-based hierarchies are legitimized and reproduced.

“It standardizes inequality and ensures that existing race- and class-based hierarchies are legitimized and reproduced.”

May combine two claims.

The pernicious results are that funding is neither permanent nor adequate and that Indigenous students are all but guaranteed an inferior education.

“The pernicious results are that funding is neither permanent nor adequate and that Indigenous students are all but guaranteed an inferior education.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Constructing an Indigenous identity in the heritage language is qualitatively different from constructing and enacting that identity in English.

“Constructing an Indigenous identity in the heritage language is qualitatively different from constructing and enacting that identity in English.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Diversity and democracy are inextricably linked.

“We view diversity and democracy as inextricably linked.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The Constitution empowers the President to negotiate treaties with foreign nations, with Senate ratification by a two-thirds vote.

“The Constitution empowers the President to negotiate treaties with foreign nations (ratification requires a two-thirds vote by the Senate)”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The statements of the Constitution, subsequent federal legislation, bureaucratic rules, and judicial decisions have shaped the contours of life in Indian country today.

“The statements of the Constitution—coupled with subsequent federal legislation, the bureaucratic rules of the federal agencies charged with supervising Indian affairs, and judicial decisions—have shaped the contours of life in Indian country today.”

May combine two claims.

In practice, local control confronts bureaucratic constraints so overwhelming that federal self-determination legislation has been critiqued as a thinly disguised tool for strengthening the federal stranglehold over Indigenous affairs.

“In practice, local control confronts bureaucratic constraints so overwhelming that federal self-determination legislation has been critiqued by Native and non-Native observers alike as a thinly disguised tool for strengthening the federal stranglehold over Indigenous affairs (see, e.g., American Indian Policy Review Commission [AIPRC], 1976; U.S. Congress, 1977; Senese, 1986).”

• cites AIPRC, 1976Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites U.S. Congress, 1977Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Senese, 1986 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Similar school-based language revitalization initiatives are under way among Indigenous communities throughout the United States.

“Similar school-based language revitalization initiatives are under way among Indigenous communities throughout the United States (see, e.g., Ah Nee-Benham, 2000; Henze & Davis, 1999; Hinton & Hale, 2001; Kipp, 2000;”

• cites Ah Nee-Benham, 2000Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Henze & Davis, 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Hinton & Hale, 2001Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

As seen with Rough Rock, bilingual educators are positioned not only to assert the primacy of the Native language within the school but also to support parents and children in using the language at home.

“As we have seen with the case of Rough Rock, bilingual educators are positioned not only to assert the primacy of the Native language within the school but also to support parents and children in using the language at home.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The Rough Rock case is representative enough of Indigenous community-controlled schools and bilingual/bicultural programs to support general conclusions about them.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

The history of American Indian education can be conceptualized as a grand experiment in standardization.

“The history of American Indian education can rightfully be conceptualized as a grand experiment in standardization.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Indigenous educators do so against a backdrop of oppression and in bureaucratic environments that are often toxic.

“Clearly, Indigenous educators do so against a backdrop of oppression and in bureaucratic environments that are often toxic.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Native America's experiences provide lessons from which all citizens can learn.

“We believe that Native America's experiences provide lessons from which all citizens can learn”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Standardization, while masquerading as an equalizing force, in fact stratifies, segregates, and undercuts equality of opportunity.

“Standardization, while masquerading as an equalizing force, in fact stratifies, segregates, and undercuts equality of opportunity.”

May combine two claims.

Schools are as essential as they are problematic for Indigenous language reclamation.

“We believe that schools are as essential as they are problematic.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Schools are not the only place for language recovery and the social transformations it entails, but schools are a necessary place for this work.

“Schools are not the only place for language recovery and the social transformations it entails, but schools are a necessary place for this work.”

May combine two claims.

The tests are discriminatory in their English-only content and depreciation of the social and cultural capital that American Indian students bring to school.

“The tests are undeniably discriminatory in their English-only content and depreciation of the social and cultural capital (Bourdieu, 1977) that American Indian students bring to school.”

• cites Bourdieu, 1977 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

The paper's analysis demonstrates that schools can be constructed as places of difference where children are free to learn, question, and grow from a position that affirms who they are.

“Our analysis demonstrates that schools can be constructed as places of difference where children are free to learn, question, and grow from a position that affirms who they are.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The Rough Rock case is representative enough of Indigenous community-controlled schools and bilingual/bicultural programs to support general conclusions about them.

May combine two claims.

Each of the federal programs funding Rough Rock has distinct aims and is accountable not to local teachers, parents, or the school board but to diverse federal agencies in Washington, D.C.

“Each of these programs has distinct aims; each is accountable not to local teachers, parents, or the school board but to diverse federal agencies in Washington, D.C.”

• cites McCarty, 1989, 1993b, 2002Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

At the heart of the conflict is a system of school funding that has been both inadequate and wildly unpredictable.

“At the heart of the conflict is a system of school funding that has been both inadequate and wildly unpredictable.”