The DOI matches its Crossref record; 239 of the 243 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Methods to identify postnatal depression in primary care: an integrated evidence synthesis and value of information analysis
Open accessAbstract
OBJECTIVES: To provide an overview of methods to identify postnatal depression (PND) in primary care and to assess their validity, acceptability, clinical effectiveness and cost-effectiveness, to model estimates of cost, to assess whether any method meets UK National Screening Committee (NSC) criteria and to identify areas for future research. DATA SOURCES: Searches of 20 electronic databases (including MEDLINE, CINAHL, PsycINFO, EMBASE, CENTRAL, DARE and CDSR), forward citation searching, personal communication with authors and searching of reference lists. REVIEW METHODS: A generalised linear mixed model approach to the bivariate meta-analysis was undertaken for the validation review with quality assessment using QUADAS. Within the acceptability review, a textual narrative approach was employed to synthesise qualitative and quantitative research evidence. For the clinical and cost-effectiveness reviews methods outlined by the Centre for Reviews and Dissemination and the Cochrane Collaboration were followed. Probabilistic models were developed to estimate the costs associated with different identification strategies. RESULTS: The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) was the most frequently explored instrument across all of the reviews. In terms of test performance, postnatally the EPDS performed reasonably well: sensitivity ranged from 0.60 (specificity 0.97) to 0.96 (specificity 0.45) for major depression only; from 0.31 (specificity 0.99) to 0.91 (specificity 0.67) for major or minor depression; and from 0.38 (specificity 0.99) to 0.86 (specificity 0.87) for any psychiatric disorder. Evidence from the acceptability review indicated that, in the majority of studies, the EPDS was acceptable to women and health-care professionals when women were forewarned of the process, when the EPDS was administered in the home, with due attention to training, with empathetic skills of the health visitor and due consideration to positive responses to question 10 about self-harm. Suggestive evidence from the clinical effectiveness review indicated that use of the EPDS, compared with usual care, may lead to reductions in the number of women with depression scores above a threshold. In the absence of existing cost-effectiveness studies of PND identification strategies, a decision-analytic model was developed. The results of the base-case analysis suggested that use of formal identification strategies did not appear to represent value for money, based on conventional thresholds of cost-effectiveness used in the NHS. However, the scenarios considered demonstrated that this conclusion was primarily driven by the costs of false positives assumed in the base-case model. CONCLUSIONS: In light of the results of our evidence synthesis and decision modelling we revisited the examination of PND screening against five of the NSC criteria. We found that the accepted criteria for a PND screening programme were not currently met. The evidence suggested that there is a simple, safe, precise and validated screening test, in principle a suitable cut-off level could be defined and that the test is acceptable to the population. Evidence surrounding clinical and cost-effectiveness of methods to identify PND is lacking. Further research should aim to identify the optimal identification strategy, in terms of key psychometric properties for postnatal populations. In particular, research comparing the performance of the Whooley and help questions, the EPDS and a generic depression measure would be informative. It would also be informative to identify the natural history of PND over time and to identify the clinical effectiveness of the most valid and acceptable method to identify postnatal depression. Further research within a randomised controlled trial would provide robust estimates of the clinical effectiveness.
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In the citing paper
“An existing meta-analysis that has examined EPDS screening accuracy searched databases through February 2007 and found that combined sensitivity and specificity to detect major depression in postpartum women was greater for a cut-off value of 12 or higher (sensitivity 0.86, specificity 0.87, 15 studies) than for a cut-off value of 10 or higher (sensitivity 0.92, specificity 0.77, 14 studies) or 13”
From Accuracy of the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) for screening to detect major depression among pregnant and postpartum women: systematic review and meta-analysis of individual participant data (2020) · cites this paper as [13]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“The 10 item EPDS is the most commonly used depression screening tool in perinatal care; cut-off values of 10 or higher and 13 or higher are most often used to identify women who might have depression.11 12 13 14 15”
In the citing paper
“The results were not pooled for pregnant women because there were too few studies, and no subgroup analyses were conducted among postpartum women because primary studies did not report the necessary data.”
In the citing paper
“The 10 item EPDS is the most commonly used depression screening tool in perinatal care; cut-off values of 10 or higher and 13 or higher are most often used to identify women who might have depression.11 12 13 14 15”
In the citing paper
“The previous meta-analysis did not pool results for pregnant women because too few studies were found, and no subgroup analyses were conducted among postpartum women because primary studies did not report the necessary data”
In the citing paper
“A previous meta-analysis of the EPDS, which was a conventional meta-analysis and only included published results, was not able to incorporate results for all key cut-off values from all included studies because they were not consistently published.”
In the citing paper
“Differences in results between the current IPDMA and the previous meta-analysis might have occurred because the current IPDMA consisted of 58 primary studies, including 36 with a semi-structured reference standard, versus 21 primary studies with various types of reference standards in the previous meta-analysis.”
In the citing paper
“Based on studies with a semi-structured reference standard, across cut-off values of 10-13, sensitivity estimates in the present IPDMA were 6-13% lower than those in the previous meta-analysis, whereas specificity estimates were 4-7% higher.”
In the citing paper
“The cut-off value of 11 or higher that maximised combined sensitivity and specificity in the present study is lower than both the most commonly used cut-off value of 13 or higher13 and the cut-off value of 12 or higher that maximised combined sensitivity and specificity in a previous EPDS accuracy meta-analysis.13”
In the citing paper
“A previous meta-analysis of the screening accuracy of the EPDS, which was conducted more than 13 years ago, found that a cut-off value of 12 or higher maximised combined sensitivity and specificity in postpartum women (21 studies)”
In the citing paper
“Strengths include analysis of data from more than twice the number of studies compared with the previous conventional meta-analysis,13 and including results for all cut-off values from all studies.”
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“l Two evaluated screening for PND.(45,56) l One focused on the impact on health visitors’ time before and after they were given training in cognitive–behavioural counselling.”
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“This measure is now the most frequently used screening instrument in epidemiological studies related to depression in pregnancy and postpartum [35].”
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Screening for postnatal depression in primary care: cost effectiveness analysis
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Self-citationDepression screening and patient outcomes in pregnancy or postpartum: a systematic review.
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“Other meta-analyses [45-47] have examined results from multiple cutoffs but have similarly been limited to using published accuracy outcomes for each cutoff.”
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“This rate is comparable to rates seen among similarly postpartum women assessed by the EPDS (Eberhard-Gran, Tambs, Opjordsmoen, Skrondal, & Eskild, 2004; Gorman et al., 2004; Heron, O’Connor, Evans, Golding, & Glover, 2004; Hewitt et al., 2009).”
ResultDevelopment of the Tilburg Pregnancy Distress Scale: the TPDS
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“The EPDS is a widely used self-report measure to identify women at risk of postnatal depression (PND) with good evidence of sensitivity and specificity (Gibson et al. 2009 ; Hewitt et al. 2009) and a score ranging from 0 to 30, consisting of eight depression and two anxiety items.”
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“36 The authors of another noted the possibility of a “disease progression bias” in one study of patients after stroke and indicated that none of the other 11 studies reviewed had limitations related to composition of patients.”
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“Although this approach has been criticized, the EPDS has relatively good sensitivity and specificity, particularly when used to detect both major and minor depression (Hewitt et al., 2009).”
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“Against this background, a programme of research was undertaken that systematically reviewed the validity (in terms of key psychometric properties), acceptability, clinical effectiveness and cost effectiveness of identification methods for PND (Hewitt et al., 2009).”
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Improving perinatal depression care: the Massachusetts Child Psychiatry Access Project for Moms
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“treatment rates or patient outcomes [11-15].”
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“In the absence of treatment, PPD can lead to chronic depression, disturbances in the interaction between the mother and her newborn and suicide as well as infanticide in rare cases [3].”
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“The 10-item EPDS is currently among themost commonly used and studied perinatal depression screening tools worldwide (Boyd et al., 2005; Hewitt et al., 2009).”
InfluentialA systematic review on the acceptability of perinatal depression screening
El‐Den, S., O’Reilly, C. L., & Chen, T. F. (2015) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2015.06.015 · Cited by 81
“Two prior publications (Brealey et al., 2010; Hewitt et al., 2009) on the acceptability of screening for perinatal depression have been identified.”
BackgroundFirst-time mothers’ confidence mood and stress in the first months postpartum. A cohort study
Kristensen, I. H., Simonsen, M., Trillingsgaard, T., Pontoppidan, M., & Kronborg, H. (2018) · Sexual & Reproductive Healthcare · doi:10.1016/j.srhc.2018.06.003 · Cited by 80
Factor structure of the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale in a population-based sample.
Coates, R., Ayers, S., & de Visser, R. O. (2016) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/pas0000397 · Cited by 87
“Interventions can ease symptoms and improve wellbeing of mothers (Dennis & Hodnett, 2007); however, effective treatment is hampered by low levels of identification of perinatal mental illness with 50% of women with depression and anxiety not identified (Hewitt et al., 2009).”
A history of mental health problems may predict maternal distress in women postpartum
Seimyr, L., Welles‐Nyström, B., & Nissen, E. (2012) · Midwifery · doi:10.1016/j.midw.2011.11.013 · Cited by 78
“The diagnosis of postpartum depression is described in relation to time that has passed after childbirth (Condon, 2010; Hewitt et al., 2009).”
BackgroundDimidjian, S., & Goodman, S. H. (2014) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2013.11.008 · Cited by 75
“measure of depressive symptoms among postnatal women (Hewitt et al., 2009) and has good psychometric properties and clear guidelines regarding clinical cutoffs among pregnant and postnatal women (Matthey, Henshaw, Elliot, & Barrnet, 2006).”
BackgroundFord, E. M., Shakespeare, J., Elias, F., & Ayers, S. (2016) · Family Practice · doi:10.1093/fampra/cmw101 · Cited by 79
“Well-validated screening tools exist for perinatal depression, which have been used in primary care populations (15,43,44), but a majority of GPs are not using these particular tools routinely (36,45).”
Prevention of Overweight/Obesity as a Strategy to Optimize Cardiovascular Health
Cornier, M., Marshall, J. A., Hill, J. O., Maahs, D. M., & Eckel, R. H. (2011) · Circulation · doi:10.1161/circulationaha.110.968461 · Cited by 74
Van Lieshout, R. J., Layton, H., Savoy, C. D., Brown, J. S. L., Ferro, M. A., Streiner, D. L., Bieling, P. J., Feller, A., & Hanna, S. (2021) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2021.2488 · Cited by 73
Long-term outcomes of participants in a perinatal depression early detection program
Reay, R. E., Matthey, S., Ellwood, D. A., & Scott, M. (2010) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2010.07.035 · Cited by 73
Engineer, N., Darwin, L., Nishigandh, D., Ngianga-Bakwin, K., Smith, S., & Grammatopoulos, D. (2013) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2013.05.003 · Cited by 67
“This reported performance characteristics at this cut-off point is: sensitivity of 0.81 and specificity of 0.86 for detection of both major and minor depression and a sensitivity of 0.917 and specificity of 0.77 for major depression only (Hewitt et al., 2009).”
BackgroundInfluentialKelder, J. C., Cowie, M., McDonagh, T. A., Hardman, S. M. C., Grobbee, D. E., Cost, B., & Hoes, A. W. (2011) · Heart · doi:10.1136/hrt.2010.220426 · Cited by 73
Maternal and infant predictors of attendance at Neonatal Follow‐Up programmes
Ballantyne, M., Stevens, B., Guttmann, A., Willan, A. R., & Rosenbaum, P. (2013) · Child Care Health and Development · doi:10.1111/cch.12015 · Cited by 71
Gale, C., Santhakumaran, S., Nagarajan, S., Statnikov, Y., Modi, N., & on behalf of the Neonatal Data Analysis Unit and the Medicines for Neonates Investigator Group (2012) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.e2105 · Cited by 69
Darwin, Z. J., Domoney, J., Iles, J. E., Bristow, F., Siew, J., & Sethna, V. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.585479 · Cited by 83
Ingram, J., Taylor, H., Churchill, C., Pike, A., & Greenwood, R. (2011) · Archives of Disease in Childhood Fetal & Neonatal · doi:10.1136/archdischild-2011-300601 · Cited by 68
Postnatal women's experiences of management of depressive symptoms: a qualitative study
Slade, P., Morrell, C. J., Rigby-Brown, A., Ricci, K., Spittlehouse, J. K., & Brugha, T. S. (2010) · British Journal of General Practice · doi:10.3399/bjgp10x532611 · Cited by 86
Pope, C. J., Mazmanian, D. S., Bédard, M., & Sharma, V. (2016) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2016.04.014 · Cited by 66
Evans, K., Spiby, H., & Morrell, J. (2019) · Archives of Women's Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s00737-018-0936-9 · Cited by 51
Self-citationLyubenova, A., Neupane, D., Levis, B., Wu, Y., Sun, Y., He, C., Krishnan, A., Bhandari, P. M., Negeri, Z., Imran, M., et al. (2021) · International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1002/mpr.1860 · Cited by 63
“The 10‐item Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) (Cox, Holden, & Sagovsky, 1987) is the most commonly used depression screening tool for women in pregnancy or postpartum (Hewitt et al., 2009; Howard et al., 2014).”
MethodSelf-citationEdvardsson, K., Garvare, R., Ivarsson, A., Eurenius, E., Mogren, I., & Nyström, M. E. (2011) · BMC Health Services Research · doi:10.1186/1472-6963-11-61 · Cited by 62
Real-Time PCR Assay Provides Reliable Assessment of Intrapartum Carriage of Group B Streptococcus
Alfa, M. J., Sepehri, S., Gagne, P. D., Helawa, M., Sandhu, G., & Harding, G. K. M. (2010) · Journal of Clinical Microbiology · doi:10.1128/jcm.00594-10 · Cited by 62
Zheng, X., Morrell, J., & Watts, K. (2018) · Midwifery · doi:10.1016/j.midw.2018.04.005 · Cited by 64
Self-citationStreetly, A., Latinovic, R., & Henthorn, J. S. (2010) · Journal of Clinical Pathology · doi:10.1136/jcp.2010.077560 · Cited by 61
Cost-effectiveness of interventions for perinatal anxiety and/or depression: a systematic review
Camacho, E. M., & Shields, G. (2018) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2018-022022 · Cited by 67
Thombs, B. D., Benedetti, A., Kloda, L. A., Levis, B., Riehm, K. E., Azar, M., Cuijpers, P., Gilbody, S., Ioannidis, J. P. A., McMillan, D., et al. (2015) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2015-009742 · Cited by 57
“mated via Gauss-Hermite adaptive quadrature, as described in Riley et al,(54) for the full range of plausible cut-off values, which for the EPDS will be considered cut-off scores from 9–15.(30) This approach appropriately models sensitivity and specificity simultaneously and also accounts for variation in within-study…”
MethodSelf-citationDoes postnatal depression screening work? Throwing out the bathwater, keeping the baby
Milgrom, J., Mendelsohn, J., & Gemmill, A. W. (2010) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2010.09.031 · Cited by 59
Zehbe, I., Moeller, H., Severini, A., Weaver, B., Escott, N. G., Bell, C., Crawford, S., Bannon, D., & Paavola, N. (2011) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2010-000030 · Cited by 59
What is the most effective way to maintain weight loss in adults?
Simpson, S. A., Shaw, C., & McNamara, R. L. (2011) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.d8042 · Cited by 61
Novel strategies in newborn screening for cystic fibrosis: a prospective controlled study
Langen, A. M. M. V.-V., Loeber, J. G., Elvers, B., Triepels, R. H., Gille, J. J. P., van der Ploeg, C. P. B., Reijntjens, S., Dompeling, E., & Dankert-Roelse, J. E. (2012) · Thorax · doi:10.1136/thoraxjnl-2011-200730 · Cited by 59
Symptoms of depression in parents after discharge from NICU associated with family‐centred care
Axelin, A., Feeley, N., Campbell-Yeo, M. L., Tandberg, B. S., Szczapa, T., Wielenga, J. M., Weis, J., Bošnjak, A. P., Jónsdóttir, R. B., George, K., et al. (2021) · Journal of Advanced Nursing · doi:10.1111/jan.15128 · Cited by 59
“A review of measures to identify postpartum depression concluded the EPDS has good diagnostic performance (Hewitt et al., 2009 ).”
BackgroundWilliamson, I., Benge, S., Barton, S., Petrou, S., Letley, L., Fasey, N., Haggard, M., & Little, P. (2009) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.b4984 · Cited by 57
Screening for Postpartum Depression in Well-Baby Care Settings: A Systematic Review
van der Zee-van den Berg, A. I., Boere-Boonekamp, M. M., IJzerman, M. J., Haasnoot-Smallegange, R. M. E., & Reijneveld, S. A. (2017) · Maternal and Child Health Journal · doi:10.1007/s10995-016-2088-8 · Cited by 57
Powell, R., Pattison, H. M., Bhoyar, A., Furmston, A., Middleton, L., DANIELS, J. P., & Ewer, A. K. (2012) · Archives of Disease in Childhood Fetal & Neonatal · doi:10.1136/fetalneonatal-2011-301225 · Cited by 57
Reilly, N., Kingston, D., Loxton, D., Talcevska, K., & Austin, M. (2020) · Women and Birth · doi:10.1016/j.wombi.2019.03.004 · Cited by 54
Nutrients and perinatal depression: a systematic review
Sparling, T. M., Nesbitt, R., Henschke, N., & Gabrysch, S. (2017) · Journal of Nutritional Science · doi:10.1017/jns.2017.58 · Cited by 53
“Various screening tools have been developed that show good reliability, sensitivity and specificity depending on the cut-off point, and have been adapted to many different languages and cultural contexts((57,58)).”
BackgroundSmith, M. S., Cairns, L., Pullen, L., Opondo, C., Fellmeth, G. L., & Alderdice, F. A. (2021) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2021.11.011 · Cited by 54
Postpartum Depression: Screening, Diagnosis, and Management Programs 2000 through 2010
Yawn, B. P., Olson, A. L., Bertram, S. L., Pace, W. D., Wollan, P. C., & Dietrich, A. J. (2012) · Depression Research and Treatment · doi:10.1155/2012/363964 · Cited by 54
Prevalence and incidence of postnatal depression: what can systematic reviews tell us?
Mann, R., Gilbody, S. M., & Adamson, J. (2010) · Archives of Women s Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s00737-010-0162-6 · Cited by 53
Self-citationPostpartum depression screening by telephone: a good alternative for public health and research
de Figueiredo, F. P., Parada, A. P., Cardoso, V. C., Batista, R. F. L., da Sílva, A. A. M., Barbieri, M. A., Cavalli, R. D. C., Bettiol, H., & Del‐Ben, C. M. (2014) · Archives of Women s Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s00737-014-0480-1 · Cited by 56
“…an effective, low-cost, and broad screening procedure may impact the detection rates and treatment of suspected cases, thereby decreasing the negative consequences of postpartum depression (Gjerdingen and Yawn 2007; Kim et al. 2007; Hanusa et al. 2008; Hewitt et al. 2009; Clare and Yeh 2012).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialLevis, B., McMillan, D., Sun, Y., He, C., Rice, D. B., Krishnan, A., Wu, Y., Azar, M., Sanchez, T. A., Chiovitti, M. J., et al. (2019) · International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1002/mpr.1803 · Cited by 49
“We used data accrued for an IPDMA on the diagnostic accuracy of the EPDS, which is the most commonly used depression screening tool for women in pregnancy or postpartum (Hewitt et al., 2009).”
MethodSelf-citationKheirabadi, G. R., Maracy, M. R., Akbaripour, S., & Masaeli, N. (2012) · Europe PMC (PubMed Central) · Cited by 51
Therapeutic Acetaminophen Is Not Associated With Liver Injury in Children: A Systematic Review
Lavonas, E. J., Reynolds, K. M., & Dart, R. C. (2010) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.2009-3352 · Cited by 51
Watson, J. M., Kang'ombe, A. R., Soares, M. O., Chuang, L., Worthy, G., Bland, M., Iglesias, C., Cullum, N. A., Torgerson, D. J., Nelson, E. A., et al. (2011) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.d1092 · Cited by 49
Causes of women's postpartum depression symptoms: Men's and women's perceptions.
Habel, C., Feeley, N., Hayton, B., Bell, L., & Zelkowitz, P. (2015) · Midwifery · doi:10.1016/j.midw.2015.03.007 · Cited by 56
Yongmei, H., Hu, P., Zhang, Y., Lu, Q., Wang, D., Yin, L., Chen, Y., & Zou, X. (2014) · Brazilian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1590/1516-4446-2013-1170 · Cited by 54
Metadata
- Authors
- Hewitt, C., Gilbody, S., Brealey, S., Paulden, M., Palmer, S., Mann, R., Green, J., Morrell, J., Barkham, M., Light, K., & Richards, D.
- Affiliations
- University of York (GB)
- University of Sheffield (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Gilbody, S
- Venue
- Health Technology Assessment
- Published
- 2009-07
- Volume
- 13
- Issue
- 36
- Pages
- 1-145, 147
- ISSN
- 1366-5278 (ISSN-L)
- 2046-4924
- OpenAlex
- W2040040787
- Cited by
- 330
- References
- 243
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 16 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 16 · 2022: 19 · 2021: 17 · 2020: 16 · 2019: 16 · 2018: 20 · 2017: 12 · 2016: 24 · 2015: 26 · 2014: 23 · 2013: 18 · 2012: 26
- FWCI
- 4.23
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- diamond
- doi.org
- Locations
- Health Technology Assessment (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- Health Technology Assessment programme (05/39/06)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Maternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and Postpartum
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pediatrics, Perinatology and Child Health › Maternal and Neonatal Healthcare
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Obstetrics and Gynecology › Maternal and Perinatal Health Interventions
- Keywords
- postpartum depression, Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale, screening, primary care, screening validity, acceptability, cost-effectiveness, value for money, decision-analytic model, maternal mental health, health visitors, clinical effectiveness, cost estimation, National Health Service
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Female, Humans, Primary Health Care, Depression, Postpartum, Evidence-Based Medicine, Diagnostic Techniques and Procedures
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