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Cited by 10Paleopathology and ancient diseasesAncient Egypt and ArchaeologyForensic Anthropology and Bioarchaeology Studies

Computed Tomography Study of the Mummy of King Seqenenre Taa II: New Insights Into His Violent Death

Open access
Saleem, Sahar N., Hawass, Zahi·2021·Frontiers in Medicine
DOI 10.3389/fmed.2021.637527PMC PMC7925410
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Abstract

Seqenenre-Taa-II, The Brave, (c.1558–1553 BC) ruled Southern Egypt during the occupation of Egypt by the Hyksos. The mummy was physically examined and X-rayed in the 1960s, which showed severe head wounds that have prompted various theories about the circumstances of his death. We postulated that Computed Tomography (CT) study of Seqenenre-Taa-II's mummy would give insights into the circumstances of his death. We examined Seqenenre's mummy using CT and compared the findings with the archaeological literature as well as with five Asian weapons found in Tell-el-Dabaa. CT findings indicate that Seqenenre died in his forties. The mummies deformed hands suggest that the King was likely imprisoned with his hands tied. CT images provided detailed analysis of Seqenenre's previously reported injuries to the forehead, right supra-orbital, nose-right orbit, left chick, and skull base. This study revealed additional craniofacial fractures in the right lateral side of the skull that had been concealed by the embalmers beneath layers of material. Analysis of the morphology of the injuries enabled a better understanding of the mechanism of trauma, possible number of the attackers, and their relative position to the King. The size and shape of the fractures correlated well with the studied Hyksos weapons. The lethal attack was aimed at the King's face, likely in an attempt to disgrace him. Mummification of Seqenenre's body was limited to evisceration without brain removal. The desiccated brain is shifted to the left side of the skull. This may indicate that the King's dead body stayed on its left side for some time—long enough for decomposition start before the mummification began. This suggests that the King likely died at a location distant from the funeral place, possibly on a battlefield. The embalmers attempted to conceal the King's injuries; the methods used suggest that the mummification took place in a royal mummification workshop rather than in a poorly equipped location. CT findings of Seqenenre's mummy helped us to better understand the circumstances of his violent death. His death motivated his successors to continue the fight to unify Egypt and start The New Kingdom.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

CT re-examination of Seqenenre Taa II’s mummy indicates he died around age 40 from multiple perimortem craniofacial injuries, with additional right-side skull fractures hidden by embalming material. The authors argue he was captured in battle against the Hyksos, killed by several attackers using weapons matching Middle Bronze II examples from Tell el-Dabaa, and then mummified in a royal workshop.

Key findings

  • Age at death was estimated at about 40 years from pubic symphysis stage 6 (35–39 years) and dental attrition grades G in mandibular teeth (35–40 years) and H in maxillary teeth (40–50 years); stature was estimated at 167 ± 3 cm from a tibia length of 384 mm.
  • CT confirmed previously reported injuries to the forehead, right supra-orbital region, nose/right orbit, left cheek, and skull base, and revealed three additional fractures in the right temporal, sphenoid, and parietal bones concealed beneath embalming material; no healing was seen, indicating perimortem trauma.
  • Mummification involved evisceration without brain removal; the desiccated brain was shifted to the left side of the cranial cavity, and a 157-mm left flank opening contained packs of linen (−100 HU) and resin (70–120 HU), suggesting the body lay on its left side before mummification.
  • Flexed wrists and spastic fingers suggested the hands were tied and affected by cadaveric spasm; injury morphology matched Hyksos-period weapons including a battle-ax, daggers, and a spearhead, leading the authors to conclude Seqenenre was likely captured and killed by multiple attackers in battle.

Methods

  • Descriptive CT case study of the mummy of Seqenenre-Taa-II (Cairo Egyptian Museum catalog code JE 26209(b) CG 61051 SR1/10192), scanned on 4 May 2019 with a Somatom Emotion 6 CT scanner; parameters included kVp 130, effective mAs 23–63, slice thickness 0.6–1.25 mm, and 2D/3D reconstructions.
  • CT findings were compared with archaeological literature and with five Asian bronze weapons from Tell el-Dabaa (three daggers, one battle-ax, one spearhead), which were photographed and measured; the authors assessed preservation status, age at death, stature, mummification, and pathologies.

Limitations

  • Stated in the paper: the disarticulated skeleton prevented direct vertex-to-heel stature measurement; the exact location of the King’s death and of any battle is unknown; and there is no definite evidence for the order of blows or which injury killed him.
  • Evident from the text: this is a single-mummy case study, and the weapon matches and assailant-position reconstructions are inferential correlations between fracture morphology and museum weapons rather than direct proof; soft-tissue inferences such as tied wrists, cadaveric spasm, and pre-mummification body positioning also rely on interpretation.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3389/fmed.2021.637527

Cites

21 of 21 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 36 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    There is a fracture of the left lip of the foramen magnum.

    “fracture of the left lip of foramen magnum”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    A gapping vertical fracture 22 mm in length splits and displaces the body of the right zygoma posteriorly.

    “A gapping vertical fracture 22 mm in length splits and displaces the body of the right zygoma posteriorly.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    A short vertical fracture 23 mm in length extends caudally from the anterior edge of the fracture.

    “A short vertical fracture 23 mm in length extends caudally from the anterior edge of the fracture.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    CT images provided detailed analysis of Seqenenre's previously reported injuries to the forehead, right supra-orbital, nose-right orbit, left chick, and skull base.

    “CT images provided detailed analysis of Seqenenre's previously reported injuries to the forehead, right supra-orbital, nose-right orbit, left chick, and skull base.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    There is a fracture above the right eyebrow.

    “fracture above the right eyebrowe”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 18
  • May combine two claims. 40

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    The upper and lower lips are retracted, showing the teeth.

    “The upper and lower lips are retracted, showing the teeth.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Mild to moderate attrition of the teeth is observed: grade G in the mandibular teeth (corresponding to 35-40 years), and grade H in the maxillary teeth (corresponding to 40-50 years).

    “Mild to moderate attrition of the teeth is observed: grade G in the mandibular teeth (corresponding to 35–40 years), and grade H in the maxillary teeth (corresponding to 40–50 years) (14, 15).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [14] Lovejoy, 1985, Dental wear in the Libben population: Its functional pattern and role in the determination of adult skeletal age at death, Am J Phys Anthropol. source
    • cites [15] Pasquier, 1999, Determination of age at death: assessment of an algorithm of age prediction using numerical three-dimensional CT data from pubic bones, Am J Phys Anthropol source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The cribriform plate is intact with no CT evidence of attempt of brain removal.

    “The cribriform plate is intact with no CT evidence of attempt of brain removal (Figure 3).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingreasoning

    The stature of Seqenenre was estimated to be about 167 cm ± 3 cm.

    “We thus estimated the stature of Seqenenre to be about 167 cm ± 3 cm (16).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [16] Raxter, 2008, Stature estimation in ancient Egyptians: a new technique based on anatomical reconstruction of stature, Am J Phys Anthropol source
    • Rests on an assumption: The mummy examined is that of King Seqenenre Taa II.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The cartilaginous elements and soft tissues of the nose are distorted and shifted to the right side.

    “Also the cartilaginous elements and soft tissues of the nose are distorted and shifted to the right side.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    These fractures are mostly covered by embalming material and cannot be detected by physical inspection.

    “These fractures are mostly covered by embalming material and cannot be detected by physical inspection.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Irregular transverse fracture of the lower part of the mastoid (with the tip of the mastoid missing), fractured left occipital condyle, and the left side of the margin of the foramen magnum.

    “Irregular transverse fracture of the lower part of the mastoid (with the tip of the mastoid missing), fractured left occipital condyle, and the left side of the margin of the foramen magnum.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Both arms are flexed at the elbows.

    “Both arms are flexed at the elbows, the hands are flexed at the wrists (more on the left side), while the fingers are hyper-extended at the metacarpo-phalangeal joints and flexed at the inter-phalangeal joints.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    A vertical fissure fracture runs from above downward in the anterior part of the right parietal bone; it measures 30 mm in length and 3 mm in width.

    “A vertical fissure fracture runs from above downward in the anterior part of the right parietal bone; it measures 30 mm in length and 3 mm in width.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The sharp fragments of the comminuted fracture of the right fronto-zygomatic process penetrated the overlying skin and resulted in an oval hole (measures 12 mm craniocaudal and 7 mm transversely).

    “The sharp fragments of the comminuted fracture of the right fronto-zygomatic process penetrated the overlying skin and resulted in an oval hole (measures 12 mm craniocaudal and 7 mm transversely).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The cut fracture involves the body of the left zygoma as well as the tip of the coronoid process of the left mandible.

    “The cut fracture involves the body of the left zygoma as well as the tip of the coronoid process of the left mandible.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    No amulets or jewelry could be detected within the mummy or on its surface.

    “No amulets or jewelry could be detected within the mummy or on its surface.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    The cranio-caudal height is about 20 mm.

    “The cranio-caudal height is about 20 mm.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The gapping fracture is of irregular width that varies between 4 and 14 mm, being wider on the left side.

    “The gapping fracture is of irregular width that varies between 4 and 14 mm, being wider on the left side.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The fracture joins anteriorly with the fractured sphenoid and extends posteriorly for about 55 mm.

    “It joins anteriorly with the fractured sphenoid and extends posteriorly for about 55 mm.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Both nasal bones are displaced posteriorly for 8 mm, deviating to the right, and show multiple comminuted fractures.

    “Both nasal bones are displaced posteriorly for 8 mm, deviating to the right, and show multiple comminuted fractures.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    There is a complete set of teeth inside the mouth of the mummy, including all of the third molars.

    “There is a complete set of teeth inside the mouth, including all of the third molars.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The narrow apex points downwards, with the top of the triangle being the base, measuring 17 mm.

    “The narrow apex points downwards, with the top of the triangle being the base, measuring 17 mm.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The fingers are hyper-extended at the metacarpo-phalangeal joints and flexed at the inter-phalangeal joints.

    “Both arms are flexed at the elbows, the hands are flexed at the wrists (more on the left side), while the fingers are hyper-extended at the metacarpo-phalangeal joints and flexed at the inter-phalangeal joints.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The fracture has narrow ends and a wider central part that measures 12 mm.

    “The fracture has narrow ends and a wider central part that measures 12 mm.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The fracture is 5-6 mm wide with a short central constriction that measures about 2 mm.

    “The fracture is 5–6 mm wide with a short central constriction that measures about 2 mm.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    There is no intracranial resin or other evidence of other embalming materials.

    “There is no intracranial resin or other evidence of other embalming materials.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Both lower limbs are extended.

    “Both lower limbs are extended; the left foot is dislocated but there is no evidence of bony fractures.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    Mummification of Seqenenre's body was limited to evisceration without brain removal.

    “Mummification of Seqenenre's body was limited to evisceration without brain removal.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The hands are flexed at the wrists, more on the left side.

    “Both arms are flexed at the elbows, the hands are flexed at the wrists (more on the left side), while the fingers are hyper-extended at the metacarpo-phalangeal joints and flexed at the inter-phalangeal joints.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Seqenenre's craniofacial injuries were inflicted around the time of death (perimortem), as there is no evidence of healing.

    “We confirm in this CT study that Seqenenre's craniofacial injuries were inflicted around the time of the King's death (perimortem) as there is no evidence of healing.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    This CT study confirms that Seqenenre's forearms were not fractured and that there are no injuries elsewhere in the body.

    “However, this CT study confirms that Seqenenre's forearms were not fractured and that there are no injuries elsewhere in the body.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Seqenenre's injuries involved five regions: a transverse forehead fracture, a gaping fracture above the right eyebrow, blunt trauma to the nose and right eye region, a sharp cut wound of the left cheek, and a penetrating wound below the left ear through the skull base.

    “The injuries involved five different regions: a transverse fracture of the forehead, a gaping fracture above the right eyebrow, a blunt trauma to the nose and right eye region, a sharp cut wound of the left cheek, and a penetrating wound below the left ear through the skull base.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The King likely died at a location distant from the funeral place, possibly on a battlefield.

    “This suggests that the King likely died at a location distant from the funeral place, possibly on a battlefield.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Computed Tomography (CT) is a non-invasive modality that has been used to examine the mummies of several ancient Egyptian royals and has allowed for greater insight into the mysterious circumstances under which they died.

    “Computed Tomography (CT) is a non-invasive modality that has been used to examine the mummies of several ancient Egyptian royals and has allowed for greater insight into the mysterious circumstances under which they died (6).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [6] The death of King Seqenenre Tao15976 ShawGJ J Am Res Center Egypt.452009

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Analysis of the morphology of the injuries enabled a better understanding of the mechanism of trauma, possible number of the attackers, and their relative position to the King.

    “Analysis of the morphology of the injuries enabled a better understanding of the mechanism of trauma, possible number of the attackers, and their relative position to the King.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Smith described the mummy's head injuries in detail, and noted the absence of wounds on the arms or on the rest of the body.

    “Smith described the mummy's head injuries in detail, and noted the absence of wounds on the arms or on the rest of the body (9).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [9] Smith, 1912

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The five Asian bronze weapons examined belong to the Asian Middle Bronze Age Culture II, which coincided with Seqenenre's reign.

    “Previous studies indicated that these weapons belong to the Asian Middle Bronze Age Culture II, which coincided with Seqenenre's reign (12).”
    • Also stated in: § Results · plain
      “Weapons found in Tell E-Dabaa (Ancient Avaris) belonged to Hyksos (Middle Bronze Culture II-MB II) at the time of Seqenenre's reign.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [12] Bietak, 1974, Die Todesumstände des Pharaos Seqenenre (17. Dynastie), Ann Naturhistor Mus Wien

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The methods used suggest that the mummification took place in a royal mummification workshop rather than in a poorly equipped location.

    “the methods used suggest that the mummification took place in a royal mummification workshop rather than in a poorly equipped location.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The relative positionality may have been achieved by the assailant being in a raised position, e.g., riding a horse, or by the King being in a lowered position, either sitting down or kneeling.

    “This relative positionality may have been achieved by the assailant being in a raised position, e.g., riding a horse, or by the King being in a lowered position, either sitting down or kneeling.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The blow came from the front of the King and to his left side.

    “The blow came from the front of the King and to his left side.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The lethal attack was aimed at the King's face, likely in an attempt to disgrace him.

    “The lethal attack was aimed at the King's face, likely in an attempt to disgrace him.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The five Asian bronze weapons originated during the Hyksos period (Middle Bronze II), which was concurrent with Seqenenre's reign.

    “The weapons originated during the Hyksos period (Middle Bronze II), which was concurrent with Seqenenre's reign (12).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [12] Bietak, 1974, Die Todesumstände des Pharaos Seqenenre (17. Dynastie), Ann Naturhistor Mus Wien

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In the 1960s, the X-ray study of Seqenenre's mummy confirmed five separate traumatic injuries confined to the head, and the absence of any fractures to the rest of the skeleton.

    “In the 1960s, the X-ray study of Seqenenre's mummy confirmed five separate traumatic injuries confined to the head, and the absence of any fractures to the rest of the skeleton (10).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [10] Harris, 1980

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Maspero and Fouquet reported a foul odor of the putrefied mummy, limited body mummification, as well as severe head injuries suggestive of a violent death.

    “Maspero and Fouquet reported a foul odor of the putrefied mummy, limited body mummification, as well as severe head injuries suggestive of a violent death (7, 8).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [7] Maspero, 1889

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [8] Ikram, 1997

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    It is possible that the displaced fractured zygoma prevented translation of the coronoid process and resulted in a locked jaw.

    “It is possible that the displaced fractured zygoma prevented translation of the coronoid process and resulted in a locked jaw.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    A situation in which Seqenenre was attacked while sleeping is unlikely, because the injuries show blows came from multiple directions, not only the left side.

    “We believe that a situation in which the King was attacked while sleeping is unlikely, as the locations of the injuries demonstrate that the blows came not only from the left side of the King but also from other directions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Possibly the king was lying down on his left side.

    “Possibly the king was lying down on his left side.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Shaw's theory best explains the results of this CT study, while agreeing with Bietak and Strohal that the King likely died in a battle with the Hyksos.

    “Though we agree with Bietak and Strohal (12) that the King likely died as a result of a battle with the Hyksos, we believe that Shaw's theory (2) best explains the results of this CT study.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [12] Bietak, 1974, Die Todesumstände des Pharaos Seqenenre (17. Dynastie), Ann Naturhistor Mus Wien

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [2] Shaw, 2000 source
    • The authors state this as an assumption: King Seqenenre was dead at the point when his body was rolled to lie on his left side and received several blows to the right side of the skull, possibly by a dagger.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Seqenenre was captured in battle and was killed in the struggle.

    “He was captured in battle and was killed in the struggle.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Any one of Seqenenre's lethal wounds is a potential cause of death, but the three together are almost certainly fatal.

    “Any one of those injuries is a potential cause of death, but the three of them together is almost certainly fatal.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Seqenenre received several lethal wounds: the forehead, the right supra-orbital, and possibly the skull base.

    “Seqenenre received several lethal wounds: the forehead, the right supra-orbital, and possibly the skull base.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    There is no evidence for the definite order of the blows Seqenenre received or which one killed him.

    “We agree with other scholars that there is no evidence for the definite order of the blows that King Seqenenre received, or which one killed him (2, 6, 9, 12).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [2] Shaw, 2000 source
    • cites [6] The death of King Seqenenre Tao15976 ShawGJ J Am Res Center Egypt.452009

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [9] Smith, 1912

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    King Seqenenre Taa's stature is comparable to the height of most New Kingdom Kings.

    “King Seqenenre Taa's stature is comparable to the height of most of the New Kingdom Kings: Thutmose III's stature was 165 cm, Tutankhamun 167 cm, Seti I 167 cm, Ramesses II 172 cm, Merenptah 172 cm, and Ramesses III 165 cm (17).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [17] Hawass, 2016

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Seqenenre fought the Hyksos, was captured, and his hands were cuffed.

    “We argue that Seqenenre fought the Hyksos, was captured, and that his hands were cuffed (6).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [6] The death of King Seqenenre Tao15976 ShawGJ J Am Res Center Egypt.452009

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Seqenenre's dead body must have remained in a left lateral position for some time, perhaps on the battlefield or during transport to Thebes.

    “We therefore suggest that the King's dead body must have remained in a left lateral position for some time; perhaps on the battlefield where he died, or while the mummy was being transported to Thebes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: King Seqenenre was dead at the point when his body was rolled to lie on his left side and received several blows to the right side of the skull, possibly by a dagger.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Seqenenre's severe craniofacial trauma could have caused fatal shock, blood loss, and/or intracranial trauma.

    “Such severe craniofacial trauma could have caused fatal shock, blood loss, and/or intracranial trauma.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
52 of 52

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    There has been no record of the fate of Seqenenre.

    “However, there has been no record of the fate of Seqenenre.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The mummy examined is that of King Seqenenre Taa II.

    “The mummy of Seqenenre is in poor condition”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The cranial injuries observed on the mummy were inflicted around the time of death and are not postmortem damage.

    “The head and face are severely injured.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The cranial injuries observed on the mummy were the cause of Seqenenre's death.

    “The head and face are severely injured.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    King Seqenenre was at a lower position than his assailant(s), possibly kneeling at least for some time during the attack.

    “We assume that the King was at a lower position than his assailant(s), possibly kneeling at least for some time during the attack.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    King Seqenenre was dead at the point when his body was rolled to lie on his left side and received several blows to the right side of the skull, possibly by a dagger.

    “We assume that the King was dead at this point, and that his body was rolled to lie at his left side where he received several blows to the right side of the skull possibly by a dagger.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    A battlefield was located somewhere between Deir el-Ballas and Avaris, and Seqenenre's dead body was transferred from the battlefield to Thebes via Deir el-Ballas.

    “We assume that a battlefield would have been located somewhere between the Egyptian stronghold at Deir el-Ballas and the Hyksos capital Avaris, and that Seqenenre's dead body was likely transferred from the battlefield to Thebes via Deir el-Ballas.”
7 of 7

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Maspero description dated 1898 but cited source is from 1889

    Minor

    The paper dates Maspero's description to 1898 but cites reference 7, which it lists as published in 1889. The cited publication could not have reported a description made nine years later.

1 of 1

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 4

  1. Maspero, 1889, Les momies royale de Deir el-Bahari
  2. Smith, 1912, The Royal Mummies: Cairo: Catalogue general des Antiquites Epyptiennes du Musee du Caire. Nos 61051-61100
  3. Bietak, 1974, Die Todesumstände des Pharaos Seqenenre (17. Dynastie), Ann Naturhistor Mus Wien, 78, 29
  4. Davies, 1998, Egypt

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Authors
Saleem, S. N., & Hawass, Z.
Affiliations
  • Cairo University (EG)
  • Ministry of Antiquities (EG)
Corresponding author
Saleem, Sahar N.
ORCID
Venue
Frontiers in Medicine
Publisher
Frontiers Media SA
Published
2021-02-17
Volume
8
Pages
637527-637527
ISSN
2296-858X (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3389/fmed.2021.637527
PMC
PMC7925410
OpenAlex
W3129551938
Semantic Scholar
2f75ab76570ecad2b9ee0b8a1d8e92a078e4ff9d
Cited by
10
References
19
Citations by year
2025: 2 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 1 · 2022: 1 · 2021: 3
FWCI
9.88
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Frontiers in Medicine (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology › Paleopathology and ancient diseases
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology › Ancient Egypt and Archaeology
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology › Forensic Anthropology and Bioarchaeology Studies
Keywords
mummies, violent death, craniofacial fractures, Hyksos, mummification, embalming, brain removal, evisceration, trauma mechanism, New Kingdom, Pharaoh

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-26.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-26.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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