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Cited by 90Music History and CultureNostalgia and Consumer BehaviorNeuroscience and Music Perception

Listening Niches across a Century of Popular Music

Open access
Krumhansl, Carol Lynne·2017·Frontiers in Psychology
DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00431PMC PMC5380754
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Abstract

This article investigates the contexts, or "listening niches", in which people hear popular music. The study spanned a century of popular music, divided into 10 decades, with participants born between 1940 and 1999. It asks about whether they know and like the music in each decade, and their emotional reactions. It also asks whether the music is associated with personal memories and, if so, with whom they were listening, or whether they were listening alone. Finally, it asks what styles of music they were listening to, and the music media they were listening with, in different periods of their lives. The results show a regular progression through the life span of listening with different individuals (from parents to children) and with different media (from records to streaming services). A number of effects found in previous studies were replicated, but the study also showed differences across the birth cohorts. Overall, there was a song specific age effect with preferences for music of late adolescence and early adulthood; however, this effect was stronger for the older participants. In general, music of the 1940s, 1960s, and 1980s was preferred, particularly among younger participants. Music of these decades also produced the strongest emotional responses, and the most frequent and specific personal memories. When growing up, the participants tended to listen to the older music on the older media, but rapidly shifted to the new music technologies in their late teens and early 20s. Younger listeners are currently listening less to music alone than older listeners, suggesting an important role of socially sharing music, but they also report feeling sadder when listening to music. Finally, the oldest listeners had the broadest taste, liking music that they had been exposed to during their lifetimes in different listening niches.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This survey of 1,899 participants born across six decades traces how listening niches—who people listen with and on what media—change over the lifespan and shape preferences for popular music from 1910–2009. It replicates a song-specific age effect peaking around age 20, finds decade-specific preference peaks for 1940s, 1960s, and 1980s music, and shows that emotional reactions strongly predict liking.

Key findings

  • Listening contexts followed a regular lifespan progression: with parents at ages 0–12, siblings/other family at 13–19, alone or with friends/peers in the 20s, with spouse/partner in the 30s, and with children in the 30s–40s; a PCA of these data accounted for 80.4% of variance (48.1% first dimension, 32.3% second).
  • Liking showed a song-specific age effect, increasing up to about age 20 and then decreasing; polynomial regression accounted for 62% of variance [F(2,57) = 46.9, p < 0.0002], and the effect was stronger for the three oldest cohorts than the three youngest.
  • Once song-specific age was controlled, decade of music still mattered [F(9,48) = 9.0, p < 0.0001], with confirmed peaks for 1940s and 1960s music; the 1960s contrast was significant [F(1,48) = 10.4, p = 0.0023], while the 1980s peak was non-significant overall [F(1,48) = 1.74, p = 0.19] but appeared for younger participants.
  • Emotional reactions strongly predicted liking: five emotion scales accounted for 99.2% of variance [F(5,54) = 1346.9, p < 0.0001]; 53.6% of participants reported personal memories associated with the songs, rated 5.73 on average for specificity, and younger cohorts listened alone less and rated music as sadder [F(1,58) = 29.8, p < 0.0001].

Methods

  • Retrospective online survey designed with Qualtrics; 1,910 participants completed it, and 1,899 born in the 1940s–1990s were analyzed across six birth cohorts.
  • Stimuli were 10 clips, one per decade from 1910–2009, each made from excerpts of the top song of each year; excerpts averaged 56.6 s (SD = 18.89) and were taken mainly from Spotify, with a few 1910s excerpts from Internet Archive.
  • Participants rated recognition, liking, emotional reactions, and personal memories for each clip, then reported music styles and media used while growing up, at ages 18–25, and now; analyses included PCA, polynomial regression/ANOVA, correlations, and multiple regression.

Limitations

  • The paper states that participants were recruited largely through NPR coverage and the Cornell Music Cognition link, with 1,085 in the USA and others from the Netherlands, Mexico, and Croatia; it could not determine how non-US participants found the questionnaire, and current residency could not be separated from age differences.
  • The paper notes that data for listening over age 65 were too sparse to include, that “played myself” responses were excluded because of ambiguity, and that cultural/artistic influences on preferences could not be assessed from the survey.
  • Evident from the design: this is a cross-sectional, retrospective, self-report volunteer sample, so causal claims about media, emotion, and preference are not supported by the data.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00431

Cites

38 of 38 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

31 tests recomputed · 0 with the reported and recomputed p on opposite sides of .05

Claims the paper makes

1 of 36 cited sources checked · 1 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    The song specific age effect was stronger for older participants.

    “Overall, there was a song specific age effect with preferences for music of late adolescence and early adulthood; however, this effect was stronger for the older participants.”
    • Also stated in: § Song Specific Age · hedged
      “It is apparent that the song specific age effect is stronger and more regular for the older cohorts than for the younger cohorts; the peak is more distinct and occurs somewhat later for the older cohorts than the younger cohorts.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' self-reports of recognition, liking, emotional reactions, personal memories, and media use accurately reflect their actual experiences and behaviors.
    • Rests on an assumption: The top Billboard songs (and Whitburn's top singles) are representative of the popular music of each decade.
    • Rests on an assumption: The 10-year clips with excerpts from choruses are valid stimuli for measuring recognition, liking, and emotional reactions to the music of each decade.
  • Findingown data

    There was a song specific age effect with preferences for music of late adolescence and early adulthood.

    “Overall, there was a song specific age effect with preferences for music of late adolescence and early adulthood; however, this effect was stronger for the older participants.”
    • Also stated in: § Song Specific Age · plain
      “The results showed an increase in how much they liked the music up to the age of about 20 and then a decrease for music that was popular later in their lives.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' self-reports of recognition, liking, emotional reactions, personal memories, and media use accurately reflect their actual experiences and behaviors.
    • Rests on an assumption: The top Billboard songs (and Whitburn's top singles) are representative of the popular music of each decade.
    • Rests on an assumption: The 10-year clips with excerpts from choruses are valid stimuli for measuring recognition, liking, and emotional reactions to the music of each decade.
  • Findingown data

    The correlations between the emotion profiles for all pairs of cohorts were highly significant (at p < 0.001, when Bonferonni corrected for multiple comparisons).

    “The correlations between the emotion profiles for all pairs of cohorts were highly significant (at p < 0.001, when Bonferonni corrected for multiple comparisons).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' self-reports of recognition, liking, emotional reactions, personal memories, and media use accurately reflect their actual experiences and behaviors.
    • Rests on an assumption: The top Billboard songs (and Whitburn's top singles) are representative of the popular music of each decade.
    • Rests on an assumption: The 10-year clips with excerpts from choruses are valid stimuli for measuring recognition, liking, and emotional reactions to the music of each decade.
    • Rests on an assumption: The emotional scales (sad, happy, nostalgic, romantic, energized) measure distinct and valid emotional responses to music.
  • Findingown data

    For all emotion scales except sad, there was an increasing trend from the earliest decade to the music of the 1980s, and then a decrease.

    “For all the scales (except sad) there was an increasing trend from the earliest decade to the music of the 1980s, and then a decrease.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' self-reports of recognition, liking, emotional reactions, personal memories, and media use accurately reflect their actual experiences and behaviors.
    • Rests on an assumption: The top Billboard songs (and Whitburn's top singles) are representative of the popular music of each decade.
    • Rests on an assumption: The 10-year clips with excerpts from choruses are valid stimuli for measuring recognition, liking, and emotional reactions to the music of each decade.
    • Rests on an assumption: The emotional scales (sad, happy, nostalgic, romantic, energized) measure distinct and valid emotional responses to music.
  • Findingown data

    There were notable differences between the three oldest cohorts (40s, 50s, 60s) and the three youngest cohorts (70s, 80s, 90s) in the song specific age effect.

    “However, a closer look showed notable differences between the three oldest cohorts (40s, 50s, 60s) and the three youngest cohorts (70s, 80s, 90s).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' self-reports of recognition, liking, emotional reactions, personal memories, and media use accurately reflect their actual experiences and behaviors.
    • Rests on an assumption: The top Billboard songs (and Whitburn's top singles) are representative of the popular music of each decade.
    • Rests on an assumption: The 10-year clips with excerpts from choruses are valid stimuli for measuring recognition, liking, and emotional reactions to the music of each decade.
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 30
  • May combine two claims. 65
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 1

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The present finding that younger listeners listen alone less fits with the idea that music sharing is used as a way to convey information about ourselves to others.

    “The present finding that younger listeners listen alone less also fits with the idea that music sharing is used to as a way to convey information about ourselves to others (Rentfrow and Gosling, 2003, 2006; Lonsdale and North, 2009).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Rentfrow and Gosling, 2003, 2006

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Lonsdale and North, 2009 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Distinctive peaks relative to neighboring decades can be seen in the curves for happy, nostalgic, and energized for music of the 1940s, 1960s and 1980s (except for nostalgia, possibly because the music is relatively recent).

    “Distinctive peaks relative to neighboring decades can be seen in the curves for happy, nostalgic, and energized for music of the 1940s, 1960s and 1980s (except for nostalgia, possibly because the music is relatively recent).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' self-reports of recognition, liking, emotional reactions, personal memories, and media use accurately reflect their actual experiences and behaviors.
    • Rests on an assumption: The top Billboard songs (and Whitburn's top singles) are representative of the popular music of each decade.
    • Rests on an assumption: The 10-year clips with excerpts from choruses are valid stimuli for measuring recognition, liking, and emotional reactions to the music of each decade.
    • Rests on an assumption: The emotional scales (sad, happy, nostalgic, romantic, energized) measure distinct and valid emotional responses to music.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Music of the 1940s, 1960s, and 1980s was preferred, particularly among younger participants.

    “In general, music of the 1940s, 1960s, and 1980s was preferred, particularly among younger participants.”
    • Also stated in: § Music Decade · boosted
      “Their liking ratings showed clear peaks for the music in the decades of the 1940s, 1960s, and 1980s.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' self-reports of recognition, liking, emotional reactions, personal memories, and media use accurately reflect their actual experiences and behaviors.
    • Rests on an assumption: The top Billboard songs (and Whitburn's top singles) are representative of the popular music of each decade.
    • Rests on an assumption: The 10-year clips with excerpts from choruses are valid stimuli for measuring recognition, liking, and emotional reactions to the music of each decade.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The regression coefficient for all of the emotions except sad was positive, suggesting that sadder popular music is less preferred.

    “The regression coefficient for all of the emotions except sad was positive, suggesting that sadder popular music is less preferred.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' self-reports of recognition, liking, emotional reactions, personal memories, and media use accurately reflect their actual experiences and behaviors.
    • Rests on an assumption: The top Billboard songs (and Whitburn's top singles) are representative of the popular music of each decade.
    • Rests on an assumption: The 10-year clips with excerpts from choruses are valid stimuli for measuring recognition, liking, and emotional reactions to the music of each decade.
    • Rests on an assumption: The emotional scales (sad, happy, nostalgic, romantic, energized) measure distinct and valid emotional responses to music.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The incidence of personal memories was associated positively with the song decades that were rated high on making them feel energized, happy, nostalgic, and romantic [r(58)=0.94, 0.95, 0.86, 0.66, respectively, all p<0.0001], and negatively on sad [r(58)=-0.29, p=0.023].

    “The incidence of personal memories was also associated positively with the song decades that were rated high on making them feel energized, happy, nostalgic, and romantic [r(58) = 0.94, r(58) = 0.95, r(58) = 0.86, r(58) = 0.66, respectively, all p < 0.0001], and negatively on sad [r(58) = –0.29, p = 0.023].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' self-reports of recognition, liking, emotional reactions, personal memories, and media use accurately reflect their actual experiences and behaviors.
    • Rests on an assumption: The top Billboard songs (and Whitburn's top singles) are representative of the popular music of each decade.
    • Rests on an assumption: The 10-year clips with excerpts from choruses are valid stimuli for measuring recognition, liking, and emotional reactions to the music of each decade.
    • Rests on an assumption: The emotional scales (sad, happy, nostalgic, romantic, energized) measure distinct and valid emotional responses to music.
    • Rests on an assumption: The memory specificity scale (0-10) validly measures the specificity of personal memories.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    There were peaks for music popular in the 1940s and in the 1960s.

    “There were peaks for music popular in the 1940s and in the 1960s.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' self-reports of recognition, liking, emotional reactions, personal memories, and media use accurately reflect their actual experiences and behaviors.
    • Rests on an assumption: The top Billboard songs (and Whitburn's top singles) are representative of the popular music of each decade.
    • Rests on an assumption: The 10-year clips with excerpts from choruses are valid stimuli for measuring recognition, liking, and emotional reactions to the music of each decade.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    After excluding the sad scale, the correlations between all pairs of cohorts were still highly significant (except for the correlation between the oldest and the youngest cohorts when corrected for multiple comparisons).

    “This might be an artifact of the low ratings on sad, so the same analysis was done after that scale was excluded and the correlations between all pairs of cohorts were still highly significant (except for the correlation between the oldest and the youngest cohorts when corrected for multiple comparisons).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' self-reports of recognition, liking, emotional reactions, personal memories, and media use accurately reflect their actual experiences and behaviors.
    • Rests on an assumption: The top Billboard songs (and Whitburn's top singles) are representative of the popular music of each decade.
    • Rests on an assumption: The 10-year clips with excerpts from choruses are valid stimuli for measuring recognition, liking, and emotional reactions to the music of each decade.
    • Rests on an assumption: The emotional scales (sad, happy, nostalgic, romantic, energized) measure distinct and valid emotional responses to music.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Music of the 1940s, 1960s, and 1980s produced the most frequent and specific personal memories.

    “Music of these decades also produced the strongest emotional responses, and the most frequent and specific personal memories.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' self-reports of recognition, liking, emotional reactions, personal memories, and media use accurately reflect their actual experiences and behaviors.
    • Rests on an assumption: The top Billboard songs (and Whitburn's top singles) are representative of the popular music of each decade.
    • Rests on an assumption: The 10-year clips with excerpts from choruses are valid stimuli for measuring recognition, liking, and emotional reactions to the music of each decade.
    • Rests on an assumption: The memory specificity scale (0-10) validly measures the specificity of personal memories.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The first (horizontal) dimension of the PCA accounted for 48.1% of the variance; the second (vertical) dimension accounted for 32.3%, for a total of 80.4%.

    “The first (horizontal) dimension accounted for 48.1% of the variance in the data; the second (vertical) dimension accounted for 32.3% of the variance, for a total of 80.4% of the variance.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The PCA dimensions are meaningful and interpretable as listening niches.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The results showed an increase in how much they liked the music up to the age of about 20 and then a decrease for music that was popular later in their lives.

    “The results showed an increase in how much they liked the music up to the age of about 20 and then a decrease for music that was popular later in their lives.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' self-reports of recognition, liking, emotional reactions, personal memories, and media use accurately reflect their actual experiences and behaviors.
    • Rests on an assumption: The top Billboard songs (and Whitburn's top singles) are representative of the popular music of each decade.
    • Rests on an assumption: The 10-year clips with excerpts from choruses are valid stimuli for measuring recognition, liking, and emotional reactions to the music of each decade.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The song specific age effect is stronger and more regular for the older cohorts than for the younger cohorts; the peak is more distinct and occurs somewhat later for the older cohorts.

    “It is apparent that the song specific age effect is stronger and more regular for the older cohorts than for the younger cohorts; the peak is more distinct and occurs somewhat later for the older cohorts than the younger cohorts.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' self-reports of recognition, liking, emotional reactions, personal memories, and media use accurately reflect their actual experiences and behaviors.
    • Rests on an assumption: The top Billboard songs (and Whitburn's top singles) are representative of the popular music of each decade.
    • Rests on an assumption: The 10-year clips with excerpts from choruses are valid stimuli for measuring recognition, liking, and emotional reactions to the music of each decade.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    There was no effect of birth cohort on either the percent of associated memories or their specificity.

    “There was no effect of birth cohort on either the percent of associated memories or their specificity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' self-reports of recognition, liking, emotional reactions, personal memories, and media use accurately reflect their actual experiences and behaviors.
    • Rests on an assumption: The top Billboard songs (and Whitburn's top singles) are representative of the popular music of each decade.
    • Rests on an assumption: The 10-year clips with excerpts from choruses are valid stimuli for measuring recognition, liking, and emotional reactions to the music of each decade.
    • Rests on an assumption: The memory specificity scale (0-10) validly measures the specificity of personal memories.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Overall, 53.6% of the participants reported having personal memories associated with the songs in the 10 decades, and those memories were rated an average of 5.73 on specificity (0-10).

    “Overall, 53.6% of the participants reported having personal memories associated with the songs in the 10 decades, and those memories were rated an average of 5.73 on specificity (0–10).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' self-reports of recognition, liking, emotional reactions, personal memories, and media use accurately reflect their actual experiences and behaviors.
    • Rests on an assumption: The top Billboard songs (and Whitburn's top singles) are representative of the popular music of each decade.
    • Rests on an assumption: The 10-year clips with excerpts from choruses are valid stimuli for measuring recognition, liking, and emotional reactions to the music of each decade.
    • Rests on an assumption: The memory specificity scale (0-10) validly measures the specificity of personal memories.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    The music from none of the decades is rated highly on sad.

    “It should be noted, however, that the music from none of the decades is rated highly on sad.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' self-reports of recognition, liking, emotional reactions, personal memories, and media use accurately reflect their actual experiences and behaviors.
    • Rests on an assumption: The top Billboard songs (and Whitburn's top singles) are representative of the popular music of each decade.
    • Rests on an assumption: The 10-year clips with excerpts from choruses are valid stimuli for measuring recognition, liking, and emotional reactions to the music of each decade.
    • Rests on an assumption: The emotional scales (sad, happy, nostalgic, romantic, energized) measure distinct and valid emotional responses to music.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    There was a significant effect of decade for all the emotion scales, with the weakest effect for sad.

    “There was a significant effect of decade for all the emotion scales, with the weakest effect for sad [energized F(9,50) = 21.1, p < 0.001, happy F(9,50) = 18.3, p < 0.001, nostalgic F(9,50) = 7.7, p < 0.001, romantic F(9,50) = 12.0, p < 0.001, sad F(9,50) = 2.8, p = 0.01]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' self-reports of recognition, liking, emotional reactions, personal memories, and media use accurately reflect their actual experiences and behaviors.
    • Rests on an assumption: The top Billboard songs (and Whitburn's top singles) are representative of the popular music of each decade.
    • Rests on an assumption: The 10-year clips with excerpts from choruses are valid stimuli for measuring recognition, liking, and emotional reactions to the music of each decade.
    • Rests on an assumption: The emotional scales (sad, happy, nostalgic, romantic, energized) measure distinct and valid emotional responses to music.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The analysis with both song specific age and decade accounted for 86% of the variance in liking ratings [F(11,48)=26.6, p<0.0001] and the effect of decade was highly significant [F(9,48)=9.0, p<0.0001].

    “The analysis with both the song specific age and decade accounted for 86% of the variance in the liking ratings [F(11,48) = 26.6, p < 0.0001] and the effect of decade was highly significant [F(9,48) = 9.0, p < 0.0001].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' self-reports of recognition, liking, emotional reactions, personal memories, and media use accurately reflect their actual experiences and behaviors.
    • Rests on an assumption: The top Billboard songs (and Whitburn's top singles) are representative of the popular music of each decade.
    • Rests on an assumption: The 10-year clips with excerpts from choruses are valid stimuli for measuring recognition, liking, and emotional reactions to the music of each decade.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The older cohorts listened more to classical, country and folk, and rhythm and blues, whereas the younger cohorts listened more to ethnic and world music, and music that did not fall in any of the categories listed in the questionnaire.

    “The older cohorts listened more to classical, country and folk, and rhythm and blues, whereas the younger cohorts listened more to ethnic and world music, and music that did not fall in any of the categories listed in the questionnaire.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' self-reports of recognition, liking, emotional reactions, personal memories, and media use accurately reflect their actual experiences and behaviors.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Overall, liking ratings were lowest for the songs that were popular long before the participants were born, and for the most recent songs for those in the oldest age cohort.

    “Overall, liking ratings were lowest for the songs that were popular long before the participants were born, and for the most recent songs for those in the oldest age cohort.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' self-reports of recognition, liking, emotional reactions, personal memories, and media use accurately reflect their actual experiences and behaviors.
    • Rests on an assumption: The top Billboard songs (and Whitburn's top singles) are representative of the popular music of each decade.
    • Rests on an assumption: The 10-year clips with excerpts from choruses are valid stimuli for measuring recognition, liking, and emotional reactions to the music of each decade.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Even though the younger participants didn't know the older songs and the older participants didn't know the most recent songs, they agreed on their emotional reactions to the music.

    “Even though the younger participants didn’t know the older songs and the older participants didn’t know the most recent songs, they agreed on their emotional reactions to the music.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' self-reports of recognition, liking, emotional reactions, personal memories, and media use accurately reflect their actual experiences and behaviors.
    • Rests on an assumption: The top Billboard songs (and Whitburn's top singles) are representative of the popular music of each decade.
    • Rests on an assumption: The 10-year clips with excerpts from choruses are valid stimuli for measuring recognition, liking, and emotional reactions to the music of each decade.
    • Rests on an assumption: The emotional scales (sad, happy, nostalgic, romantic, energized) measure distinct and valid emotional responses to music.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Both measures (percent of associated memories and specificity) correlated strongly with whether they liked and recognized the songs, and wanted to hear songs like that again.

    “Both measures correlated strongly with whether they liked and recognized the songs, and wanted to hear songs like that again.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' self-reports of recognition, liking, emotional reactions, personal memories, and media use accurately reflect their actual experiences and behaviors.
    • Rests on an assumption: The top Billboard songs (and Whitburn's top singles) are representative of the popular music of each decade.
    • Rests on an assumption: The 10-year clips with excerpts from choruses are valid stimuli for measuring recognition, liking, and emotional reactions to the music of each decade.
    • Rests on an assumption: The memory specificity scale (0-10) validly measures the specificity of personal memories.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The five emotion ratings accounted for 98.2% of the variance in whether they said they would like to hear music like that again [F(5,54)=607.4, p<0.0001], but only happy and romantic contributed positively and energized contributed negatively.

    “The five emotion ratings accounted for 98.2% of the variance [F(5,54) = 607.4, p < 0.0001], but only happy and romantic contributed positively [happy F(1,54) = 97.4, p < 0.0001, romantic F(1,54) = 6.9, p = 0.011] and energized contributed negatively [F(1,54) = 12.9, p = 0.0007]; the other two scales were marginally significant and in the same direction as before.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' self-reports of recognition, liking, emotional reactions, personal memories, and media use accurately reflect their actual experiences and behaviors.
    • Rests on an assumption: The top Billboard songs (and Whitburn's top singles) are representative of the popular music of each decade.
    • Rests on an assumption: The 10-year clips with excerpts from choruses are valid stimuli for measuring recognition, liking, and emotional reactions to the music of each decade.
    • Rests on an assumption: The emotional scales (sad, happy, nostalgic, romantic, energized) measure distinct and valid emotional responses to music.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    By ages 30-39, participants listened to music with spouse or partner, and then with children for participants in their 30s and 40s.

    “By ages 30–39, music was listened to with spouse or partner, and then with children for participants in their 30s and 40s.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' self-reports of recognition, liking, emotional reactions, personal memories, and media use accurately reflect their actual experiences and behaviors.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Each of the five emotions was significant in the multiple regression, suggesting they are each making independent contributions to how well the music is liked.

    “Each of the five emotions was significant in the multiple regression [energized F(1,54) = 5.20, p = 0.03; happy F(1,54) = 42.7, p < 0.0001, nostalgic F(1,54) = 40.2, p < 0.0001, romantic F(1,54) = 16.7, p < 0.0001, sad F(1,54) = 38.0, p < 0.0001], suggesting they are each making independent contributions to how well the music is liked.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' self-reports of recognition, liking, emotional reactions, personal memories, and media use accurately reflect their actual experiences and behaviors.
    • Rests on an assumption: The top Billboard songs (and Whitburn's top singles) are representative of the popular music of each decade.
    • Rests on an assumption: The 10-year clips with excerpts from choruses are valid stimuli for measuring recognition, liking, and emotional reactions to the music of each decade.
    • Rests on an assumption: The emotional scales (sad, happy, nostalgic, romantic, energized) measure distinct and valid emotional responses to music.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The distribution of hours listening across the three time periods of their lives was quite consistent; correlations between growing up and ages 18-25 was r(5)=0.97, between growing up and now r(5)=0.95, and between 18-25 and now r(5)=0.95.

    “The distribution of hours listening across the three time periods of their lives was quite consistent; the correlation between the distributions growing up and ages 18–25 was r(5) = 0.97, between growing up and now was r(5) = 0.95, and between 18 and 25 and now was r(5) = 0.95.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' self-reports of recognition, liking, emotional reactions, personal memories, and media use accurately reflect their actual experiences and behaviors.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    A polynomial regression confirmed the increase and decrease, accounting for 62% of the variance [F(2,57)=46.9, p<0.0002], with both linear and quadratic effects significant.

    “This was confirmed by a polynomial regression which accounted for 62% of the variance [F(2,57) = 46.9, p < 0.0002] and both the linear and quadratic effects were significant [F(1,57) = 45.3 and 48.4, respectively, both p < 0.0001).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' self-reports of recognition, liking, emotional reactions, personal memories, and media use accurately reflect their actual experiences and behaviors.
    • Rests on an assumption: The top Billboard songs (and Whitburn's top singles) are representative of the popular music of each decade.
    • Rests on an assumption: The 10-year clips with excerpts from choruses are valid stimuli for measuring recognition, liking, and emotional reactions to the music of each decade.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    They also listened to music of the 1910s with their parents, music their parents would have listened to with their grandparents.

    “They were also listening to music of the 1910s, music that their parents would have been listening to with their parents in the decade in which they were born, that is, with our participants’ grandparents.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    While growing up, older participants listened to music on records, younger birth cohorts on tape, and the youngest on CDs and other digital formats.

    “Growing up, the older participants were listening to music on records, whereas younger birth cohorts were listening to music on tape, and the youngest on CDs and in other digital formats.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Radio has been a major source of music for all birth cohorts, although digital formats (other than CD) seem to be overtaking radio for the youngest cohorts.

    “Radio has been a major source of music for all birth cohorts, although the digital formats (other than CD) seem to be overtaking radio for the youngest cohorts.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The music of the 1980s also showed a peak, but it was different from its neighbors only for younger participants.

    “The music of the 1980s also showed a peak, but it was different from its neighbors only for the younger participants.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    With siblings and other family members, they listened to the same music (1910s/1940s) and also music of the 1950s.

    “With siblings and other family members, they were listening to this same music and also to the music of the 1950s, music that was contemporary when they were young.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    The oldest three birth cohorts showed a stronger effect of song-specific age, whereas the youngest three birth cohorts showed a stronger effect of the decade of the music.

    “The oldest three birth cohorts showed a stronger effect of song-specific age, whereas the youngest three birth cohorts showed a stronger effect of the decade of the music.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    For all periods of their lives, participants listened to music on radio at a fairly high level, with a decreasing use of radio presently.

    “For all periods of their lives, they were listening to music on radio at a fairly high level although note the decreasing use of radio presently.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    No significant effect of birth cohort was found on any emotion scales, except that younger birth cohorts gave notably higher ratings on sad.

    “No significant effect of birth cohert was found on any of the emotion scales, with the exception that the younger birth cohorts generally gave notably higher ratings on sad.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Those born in the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s listened to some of the older music with both their parents and their friends, especially music of the 1940s and 1960s and, for the youngest two birth cohorts, the music of the 1980s, replicating Krumhansl and Zupnick (2013).

    “In contrast, those born in the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s listened to some of the older music with both their parents and their friends, especially music of the 1940s and 1960s and, for the youngest two birth cohorts, the music of the 1980s, replicating Krumhansl and Zupnick (2013).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Krumhansl and Zupnick, 2013 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Music of the 1940s was preferred to music of its neighboring decades (1930s and 1950s), and the same was true for music of the 1960s.

    “Music of the 1940s was preferred to music of its neighboring decades (i.e., the 1930s and 1950s), and the same was true for music of the 1960s.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The incidence of personal memories associated with songs was positively related to songs that made them feel energized, happy, nostalgic, and romantic, and negatively to those that made them feel sad.

    “The same influences of emotion were found for personal memories associated with the songs: their incidence was positively related to songs that made them feel energized, happy, nostalgic, and romantic, and negatively to those that made them feel sad.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    They liked the music of the 1990s and 2000s least, the music they also were not hearing in any listening niche.

    “Note that in Figure 9A, they liked the music of these decades least, the music that they also were not hearing in any of their listening niches.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Younger cohorts were less familiar with older music and liked it less than more recent music; the opposite was true for older cohorts.

    “the younger cohorts were less familiar with the older music and liked it less than the more recent music; the opposite was true for the older cohorts.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Radio has been a major source of music for all birth cohorts during all periods of their lives, although a decline was apparent for the youngest birth cohorts.

    “Radio has been a major source of music for all birth cohorts during all periods of their lives, although a decline was apparent for the youngest birth cohorts.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The decade effect (preferences for music of the 1940s, 1960s, and 1980s) was stronger for younger generations, and the song-specific age effect (peak in preference for music popular in late teens and early 20s) was stronger for older generations.

    “The results described above showed that the decade effect (preferences for music of the 1940s, 1960s, and 1980s) was stronger for the younger generations and the song specific age effect (with a peak in preference for music popular in late teens and early 20s) was stronger for the older generations.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Personal memories were most prevalent and specific for music heard with friends and peers, and alone, but were associated with all contexts, except for music listened to with parents.

    “They were most prevalent and specific for music heard with friends and peers, and alone, but were associated with all contexts, except for music listened to with parents possibly because autobiographical memory emerges gradually in development (Nelson and Fivush, 2004).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    They listened to older music with their parents, but more contemporary music with their friends.

    “They listened to the older music with their parents, but more contemporary music with their friends.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Currently, nearly no one listens to music on records or tapes, but more on CDs and other digital formats, including the oldest birth cohorts.

    “Finally, nearly no one is listening to music on records or tapes now, but more on CDs and other digital formats, even including the oldest birth cohorts.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The prevalence and specificity of personal memories were greatest for music heard in the teens and 20s, but also came from all periods of their lives.

    “The prevalence and specificity of personal memories were greatest for music heard in the teens and 20s, but also came from all periods of their lives.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingnone given

    The youngest birth cohort listens to music almost as much in digital formats as on radio.

    “The youngest birth cohort is listening to music almost as much in digital formats.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The specificity of memories correlated most strongly with music they heard listening alone [r(58)=0.90, p<0.0001] and with friends and peers [r(58)=0.91, p<0.0001].

    “As for how specific the memories were, the ratings correlated most strongly with music they heard listening alone [r(58) = 0.90, p < 0.0001] and with friends and peers [r(58) = 0.91, p < 0.0001], but the correlations were significant for all of the music they listened to with others except for music they listened to with parents.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' self-reports of recognition, liking, emotional reactions, personal memories, and media use accurately reflect their actual experiences and behaviors.
    • Rests on an assumption: The top Billboard songs (and Whitburn's top singles) are representative of the popular music of each decade.
    • Rests on an assumption: The 10-year clips with excerpts from choruses are valid stimuli for measuring recognition, liking, and emotional reactions to the music of each decade.
    • Rests on an assumption: The memory specificity scale (0-10) validly measures the specificity of personal memories.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The cohort born in the 1970s listened to older music (particularly 1940s and 1960s) with their parents, and only newer music (music of their early adulthood) with friends and peers.

    “When it comes to the cohort born in the 1970s, we start to see them listening to the older music with their parents, particularly the music of the 1940s and 1960s, and only the newer music, the music of their early adulthood, with their friends and peers.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    There was a regular progression throughout the life span: listening with parents as children, siblings and other family members in teen years, friends and peers and alone in twenties, spouse or partner in thirties, and children in forties.

    “Given the wide range of ages of the participants, it was possible to trace a regular progression throughout the life span: they were listening with parents as children, with siblings and other family members in their teen years, with friends and peers and alone in their twenties, with spouse or partner in their thirties, and finally with children when they were in their forties.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Participants did not rate more recent music as making them feel sadder than earlier songs, but they did rate more recent songs as making them feel less energized, happy, nostalgic, and romantic.

    “Our participants did not rate the more recent music as making them feel sadder than earlier songs (in fact, none of these top hits were rated as making them feel sad), but they did rate the more recent songs as making them feel less energized, happy, nostalgic, and romantic.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    For music in late teenage and early adult years, the oldest listeners heard music on records and tapes; middle birth cohorts switched to tape; the youngest listened on CDs and digital media.

    “For music in late teenage and early adult years, the oldest listeners were hearing music on records, but also tapes; the middle birth cohorts had clearly switched to tape, and the youngest participants were listening to music on CDs and on digital media.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    The same was true of music of the 1980s, although the effect of nostalgia was somewhat muted possibly owing to its relative recency.

    “The same was true of the music of the 1980s, although the effect of nostalgia was somewhat muted possibly owing to its relative recency.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Participants volunteered, granted informed consent, and were not compensated.

    “Participants volunteered, granted their informed consent to record their responses, and were not compensated.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Previous studies show preferences for music from late adolescence and early adulthood.

    “This is consistent with previous studies showing preferences for music from late adolescence and early adulthood (Holbrook and Schindler, 1989; Schulkind et al., 1999; Janssen et al., 2007).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Holbrook and Schindler, 1989 source
    • cites Schulkind et al., 1999 source
    • cites Janssen et al., 2007 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premiseown data

    Participants in Krumhansl and Zupnick (2013) were listening to the music of the 1980s with their parents, but were not listening to it currently.

    “We knew from their reports that they were listening to the music of the 1980s with their parents, but were not listening to it currently.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Krumhansl and Zupnick, 2013 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In Krumhansl and Zupnick (2013), all measures showed the typical increase for music released over the two decades of their lives, with the highest ratings for the music of the most recent half decade.

    “All these measures showed the typical increase for music released over the two decades of their lives, with the highest ratings for the music of the most recent half decade.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Krumhansl and Zupnick, 2013 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The protocol was approved by the Cornell University Institutional Review Board.

    “The protocol was approved by the Cornell University Institutional Review Board.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A poll conducted by CivicScience in 2015 showed that 45% of Pandora and 62% of Spotify active users are less than 30 years old.

    “A poll conducted by CivicScience in 2015 showed that 45% of Pandora and 62% of Spotify active users are less than 30 years old1.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites CivicScience in 2015

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    When analyzed separately, it was difficult to separate effects of current residency from effects of age differences, so the two groups will not be separated in the statistical analyses that are reported.

    “When analyzed separately, it was difficult to separate effects of current residency from effects of age differences, so the two groups will not be separated in the statistical analyses that are reported.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Because younger participants have had relatively easy access to a greater variety of music, they could freely sample music of widely different styles and eras, especially that from the preferred decades.

    “In contrast, because the younger participants have had relatively easy access to a greater variety of music, they could freely sample music of widely different styles and eras, especially that from the preferred decades.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    One factor contributing to the preferences for music of the 1940s, 1960s, and 1980s may be the introduction of music media that were significant improvements over previous media.

    “Stepping away from these particular results, one factor contributing to the preferences for music of the 1940s, 1960s, and 1980s may be the introduction of music media that were significant improvements over previous media.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Music is multivalent, in that it can express multiple emotions simultaneously, so the same piece might be happy, sad and nostalgic at the same time.

    “Music is multivalent, in as much as it can express multiple emotions simultaneously (Krumhansl, 1997; Vines et al., 2005), so that the same piece of music might be, for example, happy, sad and nostalgic at the same time.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Krumhansl, 1997 source
    • cites Vines et al., 2005 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Schubert's (2016) younger participants reported their tastes broadening over time.

    “Schubert’s (2016) younger participants reported their tastes broadening over time.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Schubert, 2016 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    There are general shifts from episodic to semantic details in autobiographical memories with aging.

    “there are general shifts from episodic to semantic details in autobiographical memories with aging (Levine et al., 2002).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Levine et al., 2002 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    This reduced plasticity might be reflected in the steep drop off in preferences for the most recent music.

    “and this might be reflected in the steep drop off in preferences for the most recent music.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Musical tastes tend to broaden with age, and listening to music is a social activity with people sharing music recommendations with one another, increasingly across generations.

    “Musical tastes tend to broaden with age, and listening to music is a social activity with people sharing music recommendations with one another, increasingly across generations.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Autobiographical memory emerges gradually in development.

    “autobiographical memory emerges gradually in development (Nelson and Fivush, 2004).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Nelson and Fivush, 2004 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Columbia Records introduced the 33 1/3 RPM long playing record in 1948 with greatly improved signal to noise ratio and longer playing times.

    “Columbia Records introduced the 33 1/3 RPM long playing record in 1948 with greatly improved signal to noise ratio and longer playing times.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Burgess, 2014

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Other than music heard on radio, they would have had to purchase records, tapes, and CDs.

    “Other than music heard on radio, they would have had to purchase records, tapes, and CDs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Although music of the 1960s played a strong role in defining their identities, their musical tastes are considerably broader than just the music of their youth.

    “Although that music played a strong role in defining their identities, their musical tastes are considerably broader than just the music of their youth.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Perhaps it is during that period of their lives that they began building their own music collections in the new media, developing their musical preferences, and establishing associated personal memories and emotional responses.

    “Perhaps it is during that period of their lives that they began building their own music collections in the new media, developing their musical preferences, and establishing associated personal memories and emotional responses.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The most likely candidates, based on the survey results, are long-playing records, cassette tapes, and CDs.

    “The most likely candidates, based on the survey results, are: long-playing records, cassette tapes, and CDs.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Alternately, the effect might be specific to music, with older participants having had more experience with older sadder music and thus responded less to sad content, while younger participants were more experienced with less happy music and thus responding to less happy content.

    “Alternately, the effect might be specific to music, with older participants having had more experience with the older sadder music and thus responded less to the sad content in the songs while, conversely, the younger participants were more experienced with less happy music and were thus responding to the less happy content.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Reduced plasticity with age makes it difficult to acquire the grammar of new styles of popular music.

    “Cohen (2000) has suggested reduced plasticity with age makes it difficult to acquire the grammar of new styles of popular music”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Cohen, 2000 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    This may be because older individuals tend to focus on more positive things in general, so they might have focused on the more upbeat songs in each decade.

    “This may be because the older individuals tend to focus on more positive things in general (Mather and Carstensen, 2005), so that they might have focused on the more upbeat songs in each decade.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Mather and Carstensen, 2005 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    It may also be that people in their 60s and 70s no longer typically occupy multigenerational listening niches.

    “It may also be that people in their 60s and 70s no longer typically occupy multigenerational listening niches.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Schellenberg and von Scheve's (2012) analysis of 1000 Top 40 recordings found an increase from 1965 to 2009 of minor mode and slower tempo.

    “Schellenberg and von Scheve’s (2012) analysis of 1000 Top 40 recordings found an increase over the period from 1965 to 2009 of minor mode and slower tempo.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Schellenberg and von Scheve, 2012 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    While growing up, listeners appear to have heard the music of the previous birth cohorts on the older technologies, but actively sought new music on the new technologies in their teens and twenties.

    “While growing up, listeners appear to have heard the music of the previous birth cohorts on the older technologies, but actively sought new music on the new technologies in their teens and twenties.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The broader liking curve of the 1940s cohort may be because they have listened to music with more different types of people over their lifetimes.

    “This may be because they have, over their lifetimes, listened to music with more different types of people.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Other music media have undergone shifts, and this might be a partial cue to the decade effect found.

    “Other music media have undergone shifts, however, and this might be a partial cue to the decade effect found.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Sony and Philips introduced the CD format in 1983.

    “Sony and Philips introduced the CD format in 1983.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Burgess, 2014

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Phillips compact cassette was introduced in 1963, making it possible to listen to music almost anywhere and inexpensively sharing it with others.

    “Phillips compact cassette was introduced in 1963, making it possible to listen to music almost anywhere and inexpensively sharing it with others.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Burgess, 2014

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A survey done by Edison Research found that listeners report friends and family were among the most important sources to keep up-to-date with music, together with AM/FM radio, suggesting they discover music by listening with others.

    “A survey done by Edison Research6 found that listeners report friends and family were among the most important sources to keep up-to-date with music, together with AM/FM radio, suggesting they discover music by listening with others.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Edison Research6

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    These results are in line with the finding that popular music is generally judged to be positive in both valence and arousal.

    “These results are in line with the finding that popular music is generally judged to be positive in both valence and arousal (e.g., Platz et al., 2015).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Platz et al., 2015 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationown data

    This complements the finding that 30% of the time listeners in Janata et al. (2007) study had somewhat or strongly autobiographical memories associated with 1500 randomly selected popular songs.

    “This complements the finding that 30% of the time listeners in Janata et al. (2007) study had somewhat or strongly autobiographical memories associated with 1500 randomly selected popular songs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Janata et al., 2007 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    It is impossible to assess from the current survey how influential cultural and artistic factors have been in establishing participants' preferences and emotional responses.

    “It is impossible to assess from the current survey how influential these, and cultural and artistic factors, have been in establishing the participants’ preferences and emotional responses.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    One possible explanation for this is that the older participants may generally have had less access to a wide variety of music.

    “One possible explanation for this is that the older participants may generally have had less access to a wide variety of music.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
86 of 86

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Participants' self-reports of recognition, liking, emotional reactions, personal memories, and media use accurately reflect their actual experiences and behaviors.

    “After each clip, participants reported the percentage of songs they recognized and how much they liked the songs.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The top Billboard songs (and Whitburn's top singles) are representative of the popular music of each decade.

    “For the years 1910–1954, before Billboard magazine began publishing the year-end Hot 100 chart, the song that was used in the clip was the top single listed in Joel Whitburn’s (1999) A Century of Pop Music.”
    “For the years 1955–2009, the song was the top single from every year-end Hot 100 chart2.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The 10-year clips with excerpts from choruses are valid stimuli for measuring recognition, liking, and emotional reactions to the music of each decade.

    “The excerpts were taken from the songs’ choruses to maximize recognition.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The birth cohorts can be validly compared despite differences in current age and residency, and combining US and non-US participants does not bias the results.

    “When analyzed separately, it was difficult to separate effects of current residency from effects of age differences, so the two groups will not be separated in the statistical analyses that are reported.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The emotional scales (sad, happy, nostalgic, romantic, energized) measure distinct and valid emotional responses to music.

    “Participants also rated their emotional responses: sad, happy, nostalgic, romantic, and energized (with 0 = Does not describe my feelings, 10 = Describes my feelings).”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The memory specificity scale (0-10) validly measures the specificity of personal memories.

    “If so, then they were asked how specific are the memories on a scale from 0 to 10”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The PCA dimensions are meaningful and interpretable as listening niches.

    “Figure 2 shows the results of a principal components analysis done on these data.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The sample of participants, recruited largely via NPR coverage, is not biased in ways that affect the generalizability of the findings to the broader population.

    “The link to Cornell Music Cognition4 was included in the NPR coverage5, which is most likely the major source of participants, especially the older participants living in the USA.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The year-end Hot 100 chart and Whitburn's criteria provide a valid ranking of the most popular song for each year.

    “His criteria for choosing the top single varied depending on the year. The number of sources and the size of the charts varied, but for each year Whitburn listed the total number of weeks the song appeared on any one of the charts. We chose for each year the song that charted for the greatest number of weeks.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Participants' retrospective reports of their past music listening media and contexts are accurate.

    “They reported how they were hearing music during three periods of their lives: when they were growing up, when they were 19–25 years of age, and now.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The songs selected to represent each decade are representative of the popular music of that decade.

    “In general, the popular music used here was not judged to be sad, except perhaps for the oldest decade of music, the 1910s.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The survey sample is sufficiently representative of the birth cohorts to generalize findings.

    “Given the wide range of ages of the participants, it was possible to trace a regular progression throughout the life span”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Birth cohort differences reflect generational differences rather than age differences at the time of testing.

    “The oldest three birth cohorts showed a stronger effect of song-specific age, whereas the youngest three birth cohorts showed a stronger effect of the decade of the music.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The emotion rating scales validly measure emotional responses to music.

    “The emotion rating scales almost perfectly predicted how well the music from the different decades was liked.”
14 of 14

Statistics that don’t add up

Each reported p-value recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom.

  • p-value fits an unstated one-tailed test: F(1,54) = 16.7, p < .0001

    Minor

    The paper reports p < .0001 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p < .001. The reported value is what a one-tailed test gives, but the paper does not say near this result that a one-tailed test was used.

    Reported p < .0001 · recomputed p < .001

1 of 1

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

  • Doesn’t add upF(1, 54) = 16.7reported p < .0001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(1,54) = 16.7, p < .0001”

  • ConsistentF(2, 57) = 46.9reported p < .0002 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(2,57) = 46.9, p < .0002”

  • ConsistentF(11, 48) = 26.6reported p < .0001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(11,48) = 26.6, p < .0001”

  • ConsistentF(9, 48) = 9reported p < .0001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(9,48) = 9.0, p < .0001”

  • ConsistentF(1, 48) = 3.5reported p = .066 · recomputed p = .067

    “F(1,48) = 3.5, p = .066”

  • ConsistentF(1, 48) = 10.4reported p = .0023 · recomputed p = .002

    “F(1,48) = 10.4, p = .0023”

  • ConsistentF(1, 48) = 1.74reported p = .19 · recomputed p = .193

    “F(1,48) = 1.74, p = .19”

  • ConsistentF(9, 50) = 21.1reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(9,50) = 21.1, p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(9, 50) = 18.3reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(9,50) = 18.3, p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(9, 50) = 7.7reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(9,50) = 7.7, p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(9, 50) = 12reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(9,50) = 12.0, p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(9, 50) = 2.8reported p = .01 · recomputed p = .010

    “F(9,50) = 2.8, p = .01”

  • ConsistentF(5, 54) = 1346.9reported p < .0001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(5,54) = 1346.9, p < .0001”

  • ConsistentF(1, 54) = 5.2reported p = .03 · recomputed p = .027

    “F(1,54) = 5.20, p = .03”

  • ConsistentF(1, 54) = 42.7reported p < .0001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(1,54) = 42.7, p < .0001”

  • ConsistentF(1, 54) = 40.2reported p < .0001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(1,54) = 40.2, p < .0001”

  • ConsistentF(1, 54) = 38reported p < .0001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(1,54) = 38.0, p < .0001”

  • Consistentr(58) = 0.92reported p < .0001 · recomputed p < .001

    “r(58) = 0.92, p < .0001”

  • Consistentr(58) = 0.87reported p < .0001 · recomputed p < .001

    “r(58) = 0.87, p < .0001”

  • ConsistentF(5, 54) = 607.4reported p < .0001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(5,54) = 607.4, p < .0001”

  • ConsistentF(1, 54) = 97.4reported p < .0001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(1,54) = 97.4, p < .0001”

  • ConsistentF(1, 54) = 6.9reported p = .011 · recomputed p = .011

    “F(1,54) = 6.9, p = .011”

  • ConsistentF(1, 54) = 12.9reported p = .0007 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(1,54) = 12.9, p = .0007”

  • Consistentr(58) = 0.81reported p < .0001 · recomputed p < .001

    “r(58) = 0.81, p < .0001”

  • Consistentr(58) = 0.83reported p < .0001 · recomputed p < .001

    “r(58) = 0.83, p < .0001”

  • Consistentr(58) = -0.29reported p = .023 · recomputed p = .025

    “r(58) = -0.29, p = .023”

  • Consistentr(58) = 0.96reported p < .0001 · recomputed p < .001

    “r(58) = 0.96, p < .0001”

  • Consistentr(58) = 0.91reported p < .0001 · recomputed p < .001

    “r(58) = 0.91, p < .0001”

  • Consistentr(58) = 0.9reported p < .0001 · recomputed p < .001

    “r(58) = 0.90, p < .0001”

  • ConsistentF(1, 54) = 10.9reported p = .0017 · recomputed p = .002

    “F(1,54) = 10.9, p = .0017”

  • ConsistentF(1, 58) = 29.8reported p < .0001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(1,58) = 29.8, p < .0001”

31 of 31

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Listening-history age range changes from 18-25 to 19-25

    Minor

    The same three listening-history periods are described with different starting ages.

  • Accounts conflict on younger cohorts hearing older music with friends

    Minor

    The Results say the 1970s cohort heard only newer music with friends and peers, while the Discussion says that cohort heard some older music with both parents and friends.

2 of 2

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 2

  1. Hargreaves, 1982, The development of aesthetic reactions to music., Psychol. Music, 10, 51
  2. Whitburn, 1999, A Century of Pop Music.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Krumhansl, C. L.
Affiliations
Cornell University (US)
Corresponding author
Krumhansl, Carol Lynne
Venue
Frontiers in Psychology
Publisher
Frontiers Media SA
Published
2017-04-05
Volume
8
Pages
431-431
ISSN
1664-1078 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00431
PMC
PMC5380754
OpenAlex
W2604105200
Semantic Scholar
8be83c835cc96337738d33274c9bfea9bd6d40c3
Cited by
90
References
37
Citations by year
2026: 2 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 20 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 39 · 2018: 2 · 2017: 1
FWCI
231.79
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
cc-by
Locations
  • Frontiers in Psychology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Music › Music History and Culture
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Nostalgia and Consumer Behavior
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neuroscience and Music Perception
Keywords
popular music, music listening, music preference, birth cohort, lifespan development, music and emotion, music memory, music media, music streaming, generational differences

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-11-03.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-11-03.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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