How to Reduce Test Anxiety and Academic Procrastination Through Inquiry of Cognitive Appraisals: A Pilot Study Investigating the Role of Academic Self-Efficacy
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BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Test anxiety can impair learning motivation and lead to procrastination. Control-value theory of achievement emotions (Pekrun, 2006) assumes test anxiety to be a result of students' appraisals of the testing situation and its outcomes. Modification of cognitive appraisals such as low self-efficacy beliefs is thus assumed to reduce test anxiety and subsequent procrastination. In the present study, we tested the effects of an inquiry-based stress reduction (IBSR) intervention on students' academic self-efficacy, their test anxiety, and subsequent procrastination in the final stages of an academic term. DESIGN: Longitudinal quasi-randomized intervention control trial. METHODS: = 31) received the intervention after the study was completed. Dependent variables were assessed before and after the intervention as well as at the end of the term. RESULTS: Data-analyses revealed that the IBSR intervention reduced test anxiety as well as subsequent academic procrastination in comparison to the control group. The effect on test anxiety was partly due to an enhancement of self-efficacy. CONCLUSION: Our findings provide preliminary evidence that IBSR might help individuals to cope with their test anxiety and procrastination.
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Krispenz and Dickhäuser et al. presented the effectiveness of an IBSR intervention in reducing students' academic procrastination and test anxiety.
“Krispenz and Dickhäuser et al. presented the effectiveness of an IBSR intervention in reducing students’ academic procrastination and test anxiety [57,58].”
From Inquiry based stress reduction (Ibsr) improves overall stuttering experience among adults who stutter: A randomized controlled trial (2021) · cites this paper as [58]
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“Each increase in academic self-efficacy could have an effect on individual test anxiety scores[37].”
BackgroundProcrastinación académica y ansiedad ante exámenes en estudiantes universitarios
Balladares, K. R. N., & Gómez, D. G. (2023) · LATAM Revista Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades · doi:10.56712/latam.v4i1.358 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Sun, P., Wang, L., & Yan, L. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1496528 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Loder, A. K. F. (2024) · Trends in Higher Education · doi:10.3390/higheredu3010004 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Amro, M., Malak, M. Z., & Ayed, A. (2024) · Counselling and Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1002/capr.12831 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
de Araújo, G. R., de Araújo, G. O., da Silva, P. G. N., Rocha, A. S., Ximenes, J. M., da Cunha, L. R. L., de Medeiros, P. C. B., & de Medeiros, É. D. (2024) · Revista Psicologia e Saúde · doi:10.20435/pssa.v16i1.2489 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Outros preditores são o perfeccionismo desadaptativo (Krispenz et al., 2019), medo do fracasso (Danne et al., 2024), falta de motivação, estresse, uso excessivo da internet e dificuldade de realizar tarefas (He, 2017).”
Wu, Z., Xue, L., Zhang, Y., Zhan, F., Li, H., Liu, R., Yang, X. J., & Chen, Z. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1713213 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Weich, A., Higuchi, T., Bundschuh, R. A., Lapa, C., Serfling, S. E., Rowe, S. P., Pomper, M. G., Herrmann, K., Buck, A. K., Derlin, T., et al. (2022) · Molecular Imaging and Biology · doi:10.1007/s11307-022-01712-6 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“This rather broad definition has been expanded by Zeidner defining multiple levels of test anxiety, including somatic symptoms such as palpitations or sweating, downgrading self-statements about (academic) failure, and behavioral avoidance tendencies such as procrastination [28, 29].”
BackgroundAssociations Between Cognitive Appraisals and Emotions: A Meta-Analytic ReviewPreprint
Yeo, G. C., & Ong, D. C. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/ystxc · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Mastrokoukou, S., Kaliris, A., & Longobardi, C. (2025) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/00222194251391831 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Anxiety is thought to impair motivation to learn, which is reflected in self-efficacy beliefs, potentially leading to procrastination (Krispenz et al., 2019).”
Abdulbaqi, J., & Uzun, G. O. (2024) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/21582440241296609 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“The physiological effects include excessive perspiration, heart palpitations, nausea, trembling, and tense muscles (Krispenz et al., 2019).”
Faure, T., Weyers, I., Voltmer, J.-B., Westermann, J., & Voltmer, E. (2024) · BMC Medical Education · doi:10.1186/s12909-024-05640-7 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“The study-specific self-efficacy (WIRKSTUD) was examined using seven items (e.g., ‘If I prepare myself sufficiently, I can achieve a good performance in the test/ friendly feedback’) [40, 41].”
MethodLi, G., Xiong, Z., & Lin, P. (2024) · Behavioral Science · doi:10.3390/bs14121219 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“2024 , 14 , 1219 3 of 14 Short-term Mood Regulation Theory suggests that procrastination is an ineffective coping strategy for anxiety, as individuals tend to prioritize managing their emotional state over completing long-term tasks with positive outcomes, such as studying [25,26].”
Aydemir, M. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1806190 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Prior studies suggest that interventions targeting cognitive appraisals and academic self-efficacy can reduce both TA and subsequent AP, supporting the conceptual link between anxiety-driven avoidance and delayed task engagement (Krispenz et al., 2019).”
da Silva, P. G. N., Dantas, L. M. G. L., de Oliveira, T. C. F., Barbosa, A. M. G., Silva, A. C. M. M., de Azevedo, T. G., de Medeiros, É. D., & Alvarenga, M. A. S. (2025) · Revista Portuguesa de Investigação Comportamental e Social · doi:10.31211/rpics.2025.11.1.368 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Interventional procrastination strategies for young adults in virtual settings: A systematic reviewPreprint
Xu, J. H., Marjia, M., Ahluwalia, K., Zada, D. K., Tavakolizaeh, N., & Dao, M. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/cgvdb · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Social Media Use and Test Anxiety: Exploring the Relationship
Donkoh, S., Ekuban, J. I. A., & Mensah, R. (2023) · Journal of Education and Learning · doi:10.5539/jel.v12n6p166 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Test anxiety is a multidimensional construct (Krispenz, Gort, Schültke, & Dickhäuser, 2019) associated with either the fear of or not performing satisfactorily in a test.”
朱, 婉. (2024) · Advances in Education · doi:10.12677/ae.2024.143446 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Duraku, Z. H., Fetahu, D., Konjufca, J., Rrahmani, F., & Bajgora, S. (2025) · International Journal of Adolescence and Youth · doi:10.1080/02673843.2025.2495885 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“These behaviours not only undermine students’ ability to study and prepare effectively but also perpetuate the cycle of anxiety and poor academic performance (Krispenz et al., 2019; Van Eerde, 2003; Zeidner, 2007).”
Beaird, E., Karaoğlu, S., Hafızoğlu, F. M., & Sen, S. (2025) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-44-340553-2.00018-6 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Lin, L., Yu, H.-Y., Jiang, X., Ma, Y., Liang, Z., & Luan, T.-T. (2025) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-025-03790-x · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“For instance, Krispenz et al. discovered that individuals with low academic self-efficacy frequently exhibit test anxiety when confronted with exams [15].”
Exploring the Pattern of Cognitive Test Anxiety among PG Students: A Cluster Analysis
Barun Patra, B. D. (2026) · International Journal of Advanced Research in Science Communication and Technology · doi:10.48175/ijarsct-31675 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Peker, A., Cengiz, S., Laranjeira, C., & Yıldırım, M. (2026) · Counselling and Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1002/capr.70123 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Team Approach to Diagnostic and Correction of Learning Problems in a Public Primary School
Plotnikova, A. V., & Glozman, J. M. (2019) · Bulletin of Kemerovo State University · doi:10.21603/2078-8975-2019-21-4-998-1004 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
韩, 思. (2021) · Advances in Psychology · doi:10.12677/ap.2021.115132 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Lingaiah, J., & Ishak, S. N. (2024) · International Journal of Research and Review · doi:10.52403/ijrr.20240145 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Impact of Inquiry-Based Stress Reduction Intervention on Pharmacy Students’ Test Anxiety
Ndungu, M., Galal, S. M., Tran, E. N., Peng, M., Chang, J., Vyas, D., Mayberry, J. K., & Chima, A. K. (2024) · Trends in Higher Education · doi:10.3390/higheredu3040069 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
MoodBooster - A Gamified App to Support Stress Reduction in University Students
Aigner, C., Moser, M., Wolfsberger, O. C., Baranyi, R., Hohenegger, V., & Grechenig, T. (2024) · IEEE International Conference on e-Health Networking, Applications and Services (Healthcom) · doi:10.1109/healthcom60970.2024.10880742 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“The latter is based on IBSR [39].”
Psychometric properties for the General Procrastination Scale (GPS) Brazilian version
Chirinéa, G., Gonçalves, A. P., Lima, V. L. M. C., Santos, A. L. M., de Almeida, C. P., & Lodha, P. (2025) · Estudos de Psicologia (Campinas) · doi:10.1590/1982-0275202542e230051 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Procrastination in Medical University Students with Different Personality Orientation
Voronova, T. A., Dubrovina, S. V., & Chepurko, Y. V. (2020) · The Education and science journal · doi:10.17853/1994-5639-2020-9-86-106 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Gopakumar, G., & Mathew, P. (2022) · International Journal of Health Sciences and Research · doi:10.52403/ijhsr.20220424 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“On an effective level test anxiety is associated with unpleasant feelings of agitation, insecurity and helplessness, which may evoke certain motivational consequences such as avoidance tendencies.(4) A low level of stress is necessary, but it is sometimes so complicated that it limits individual performance in test an…”
BackgroundMotivational aspects of learning activities among engineering specialties’ students
Pilishvili, T., Medvedeva, I. A., & Игоревна, Ф. М. (2020) · Perspectives of science and education · doi:10.32744/pse.2020.4.22 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
تحليل مسار العلاقات بين قلق فيروس کورونا والمناعة النفسية والتسويف الأکاديمي لدى طلبة الجامعة
هلال, م. ح. ع. ا. (2021) · المجلة التربوية لکلية التربية بسوهاج · doi:10.21608/edusohag.2021.198471
Capacidad predictiva de la escala de procrastinación académica en estudiantes universitarios
Maturrano, E. F. L. (2021) · REVISTA VERITAS ET SCIENTIA - UPT · doi:10.47796/ves.v10i2.567
“…destructivo, puede llevar a la reducción de la confianza en uno mismo y la somnolencia, y aumentan los comportamientos poco saludables, tabaquismo, bebida, trastornos gastrointestinales, insomnio, ansiedad y depresión, reduciendo así la calidad de vida (Steel & Gröpel, 2008; Krispenz et al., 2019).”
BackgroundInfluentialفعالية برنامج إرشادي عقلاني انفعالي لتحسين التفکير الإيجابي لخفض التسويف الأکاديمي لدى طلاب الجامعة
معوض, م. ن. (2021) · مجلة كلية التربية جامعة بنها · doi:10.21608/jfeb.2022.230542
الشهري, ع. ا. س. (2022) · المجلة التربوية لکلية التربية بسوهاج · doi:10.21608/edusohag.2022.270094
Bhatta, K. R., Shakya, S., Luitel, N. P., & Rai, B. (2023) · Journal of Psychiatrists Association of Nepal · doi:10.3126/jpan.v12i1.59418
“Further, group-based interventions effectively reduce test anxiety among school and college students (26-28) .”
BackgroundTransformative Analysis of Mental Health in Rural China: The CART Algorithm ApproachPreprint
Fu, D., He, J., & Mu, Q. (2024) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3953360/v1
ACER’s Mathematics Anxiety and Engagement Strategy (MAES): A framework
Buckley, S., Reid, K., Pearn, C. A., & Sniedze-Gregory, S. (2024) · doi:10.37517/978-1-74286-736-6
Hojjati, M., & Zadhasn, Z. (2023) · KMAN Counseling and Psychology Nexus · doi:10.61838/kman.psychnexus.1.1.2
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The relationship between academic self-efficacy and academic procrastination: A meta-analysis study
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Eficacia de una intervención para reducir la procrastinación académica y la ansiedad de evaluación
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Senior High Students’ Examination Anxiety and Its Implications for Counselling
Ahenakwa, S., Kuranchie, A., & Mensah, M. K. (2025) · Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal · doi:10.14738/assrj.123.18486
Using Agent Interventions to Reduce User Procrastination Tendencies
Beaird, E., Hafızoğlu, F. M., & Sen, S. (2025) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-93930-3_12
Tatsiopoulou, P., Alvanou, A., Holeva, V., Malliora, A., Vourlgaroglou, A., Triglianou, M., Nikopoulou, V. A., Parlapani, E., & Fountoulakis, K. Ν. (2025) · Psychology and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.11648/j.pbs.20251404.13
Asare, P. Y. (2026) · The International Journal of Management Education · doi:10.1016/j.ijme.2025.101286
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“…example, if asked about exam stress, students will often emphasise anxiety, pressure, and nervousness before the exam period; however, once the exam is completed, they may emphasise relief and feelings of accomplishment, disappointment, and/or regret depending on their perceived performance [32].”
Liu, K., & Zhou, S. (2021) · OSF Preprints (OSF Preprints)
- Authors
- Krispenz, A., Gort, C., Schültke, L., & Dickhäuser, O.
- Affiliations
- University of Mannheim (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Krispenz, Ann
- Venue
- Frontiers in Psychology
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2019-08-20
- Volume
- 10
- Pages
- 1917-1917
- ISSN
- 1664-1078 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC6710437
- OpenAlex
- W2966775938
- Semantic Scholar
- 26a16b37fdc951f50d3eccc257d99ae7f313d6c8
- Cited by
- 116
- References
- 40
- Citations by year
- 2026: 16 · 2025: 24 · 2024: 25 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 24 · 2020: 3 · 2019: 1
- FWCI
- 10.91
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Frontiers in Psychology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- MADOC (University of Mannheim) (acceptedVersion)
- BORIS (University Library Bern) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Open Access CRIS of the University of Bern
- Funders
- Universität Mannheim
- Ministerium für Wissenschaft, Forschung und Kunst Baden-Württemberg
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Perfectionism, Procrastination, Anxiety Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Student Stress and Coping
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
- Keywords
- test anxiety, academic procrastination, academic self-efficacy, cognitive appraisal, stress reduction intervention, control-value theory of achievement emotions, coping with anxiety, students
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