Targeting Procrastination Using Psychological Treatments: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Open accessAbstract
Background: Procrastination can be stressful and frustrating, but it seldom causes any major distress. However, for some people, it can become problematic, resulting in anxiety, lowered mood, physical complaints, and decreased well-being. Still, few studies have investigated the benefits of targeting procrastination. In addition, no attempt has previously been made to determine the overall efficacy of providing psychological treatments. Methods: A systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted by searching for eligible records in Scopus, Proquest, and Google Scholar. Only randomized controlled trials comparing psychological treatments for procrastination to an inactive comparator and assessing the outcomes by a self-report measure were included. A random effects model was used to determine the standardized mean difference Hedge’s g at post-treatment. Furthermore, test for heterogeneity was performed, fail-safe N was calculated, and the risk of bias was explored. The study was pre-registered at Prospero: CRD42017069981. Results: A total of 1639 records were identified, with twelve studies (21 comparisons, N = 718) being included in the quantitative synthesis. Overall effect size g when comparing treatment to control was 0.34, 95% Confidence Interval [0.11, 0.56], but revealing significant heterogeneity, Q(20) = 46.99, p < .00, and I2 = 61.14%, 95% CI [32.83, 84.24]. Conducting a subgroup analysis of three out of four studies using cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) found an effect size g of 0.55, 95% CI [0.32, 0.77], and no longer showing any heterogeneity, Q(4) = 3.92, p = 0.42, I2 = 0.00%, 95% CI [0.00, 91.02] (N = 236). Risk of publication bias, as assessed by the Egger’s test was not significant, z = -1.05, p = 0.30, fail-safe N was 370 studies, and there was some risk of bias as rated by two independent researchers. In terms of secondary outcomes, the self-report measures were too varied to present an aggregated estimate. Conclusions: Psychological treatments seem to have small benefits on procrastination, but the studies displayed significant between-study variation. Meanwhile, CBT was associated with a moderate benefit, but consisted of only three studies. Recommendations for future research are provided, including the use of more valid and reliable outcomes and a screening interview at intake.
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This finding aligns closely with Rozental, Forsström, et al. (2018), which reported an effect size of d = 1.24.
“This finding aligns closely with Rozental, Forsström, et al. (2018), which reported an effect size of d = 1.24.”
From Group cognitive behavioral therapy for reducing procrastination in college students: a randomized controlled trial (2026) · cites this paper as Rozental, Forsström, et al. (2018)
The Results (Synthesized findings; page unavailable) report an overall effect size of g = 0.34 and a CBT subgroup effect size of g = 0.55, not d = 1.24. A search for 1.24 found no such reported effect size in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredApproximately 57 participants were needed for 80% power (alpha = .05; repeated measures ANOVA) based on the lower bound of the 95% CI (0.76) from Rozental et al. (2018).
“Based on this, approximately 57 participants were needed for 80% power (alpha = .05; repeated measures ANOVA).”
From Group cognitive behavioral therapy for reducing procrastination in college students: a randomized controlled trial (2026) · cites this paper as Rozental, Forsström, et al. (2018)
Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 1 disputed, 0 misattributed, 1 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
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Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredSession 3 discussed circadian rhythms, energy levels, stimulus control, multitasking, and to-do lists, which all affect impulsivity.
“Session 3 discussed circadian rhythms, energy levels, stimulus control, multitasking, and to do-lists, which all affect the factor impulsivity (creating the right circumstances to engage in goal-directed behaviors and removing distractions).”
From Group cognitive behavioral therapy for reducing procrastination in college students: a randomized controlled trial (2026) · cites this paper as Rozental, Forsström, et al., 2018
The Discussion (page unavailable) identifies stimulus control as an intervention targeting sensitivity to delay, and the Introduction > Rationale (page unavailable) discusses removing distractions to prevent immediate gratification. Our copy does not describe a Session 3 or link circadian rhythms, energy levels, multitasking, and to-do lists to impulsivity. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredSession 2 addressed goal-setting and reward scheduling, believed to primarily affect value, delay, and expectancy.
“Session 2 addressed goal-setting and reward scheduling, believed to primarily affect the factors value (increasing the reward of engaging with a task or commitment), delay (preventing hyperbolic discounting by transferring distal rewards to more proximal), and expectancy (interfering with maladaptive beliefs about how a task or commitment might be experienced).”
From Group cognitive behavioral therapy for reducing procrastination in college students: a randomized controlled trial (2026) · cites this paper as Rozental, Forsström, et al., 2018
The Discussion links goal-setting to value and identifies interventions aimed at expectancy, timing, and sensitivity to delay. It does not describe reward scheduling or establish the sentence’s specific account of proximal rewards and maladaptive beliefs. The Session 2 description appears to be the citing authors’ own account, not a claim about this source. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredRozental et al. (2015), and Rozental, Forsström et al. (2018) found smaller effects on well-being and quality of life.
“Rozental et al. (2015), and Rozental, Forsström et al. (2018) found smaller effects on well-being and quality of life”
From Group cognitive behavioral therapy for reducing procrastination in college students: a randomized controlled trial (2026) · cites this paper as Rozental, Forsström et al. (2018)
The Results (Synthesized findings; page unavailable) report small quality-of-life effects from Rozental et al. (2015a), and the Discussion describes small-to-moderate effects on secondary outcomes. Our copy does not report well-being or quality-of-life findings from the separately cited Rozental, Forsström et al. (2018) trial, so it supports only part of the attribution. (LLM, conf=0.83)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The treatment primarily focuses on strategies that help bridge the gap between intention and action.
“These findings are reasonable as the treatment primarily focuses on strategies that help bridge the gap between intention and action (Rozental et al., 2015; Rozental, Forsström, et al., 2018).”
From Group cognitive behavioral therapy for reducing procrastination in college students: a randomized controlled trial (2026) · cites this paper as Rozental, Forsström, et al., 2018
The Introduction > Rationale describes procrastination interventions such as implementation intentions, goal-setting and self-monitoring that help people initiate and complete tasks. The Discussion also lists CBT strategies including sub-goals and behavioral activation. These passages support the general idea of bridging intention and action, but the review does not establish that the particular treatment cited primarily focuses on those strategies. (LLM, conf=0.78)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredResearch utilizing RCTs for procrastination is limited.
“Despite CBT's promise, research utilizing randomized controlled trials (RCTs) for procrastination is limited.”
From Group cognitive behavioral therapy for reducing procrastination in college students: a randomized controlled trial (2026) · cites this paper as Rozental, Bennett, et al., 2018
In Rozental, Forsström, et al. (2018), the intervention was highly effective for both in-person group CBT and online CBT, but effects of the group-based intervention were more robust at follow-up.
“The intervention was highly effective for both conditions, but effects of the group-based intervention were more robust at follow-up, suggesting that training groups with in-person interactions between participants and therapists may be a more effective intervention format for reducing procrastination.”
From Group cognitive behavioral therapy for reducing procrastination in college students: a randomized controlled trial (2026) · cites this paper as Rozental, Forsström, et al., 2018
The References identify a separate 2018 trial by Rozental, Forsström, and colleagues comparing internet-delivered and group CBT, but this review does not report that trial’s results. Its Discussion says long-term effects remain relatively unexplored; searches for follow-up and a comparison of the two formats found no account of group CBT having more robust effects at follow-up. (LLM, conf=0.76)
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“The original study required participants to meet a cut-off score on the Pure Procrastination Scale (Rozental, Forsström, et al., 2018), whereas our study recruited a convenience sample of university students who self-reported difficulties with procrastination.”
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- Authors
- Rozental, A., Bennett, S., Forsström, D., Ebert, D. D., Shafran, R., Andersson, G., & Carlbring, P.
- Affiliations
- Karolinska Institutet (SE)
- University College London (GB)
- Stockholm University (SE)
- Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg (DE)
- Linköping University (SE)
- Corresponding author
- Rozental, Alexander
- ORCID
- Venue
- Frontiers in Psychology
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2018-08-30
- Volume
- 9
- Pages
- 1588-1588
- ISSN
- 1664-1078 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC6125391
- OpenAlex
- W2888877365
- Cited by
- 70
- References
- 72
- Citations by year
- 2026: 14 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 6
- FWCI
- 0.63
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- Frontiers in Psychology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- VU Research Portal (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- University of Southern Denmark Research Portal (University of Southern Denmark) (acceptedVersion, cc-by)
- DiVA (Linkoping University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- OPUS Repository (Kooperativer Bibliotheksverbund Berlin-Brandenburg) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Perfectionism, Procrastination, Anxiety Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychological Treatments and Assessments
- Keywords
- procrastination, psychological intervention, cognitive behavioral therapy, treatment efficacy, self-report measures, study heterogeneity, risk of bias, publication bias, well-being, anxiety, mood, physical complaints, risk of bias assessment, risk of bias in meta-analysis, risk of bias in individual studies
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