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Inoculating Against Fake News About COVID-19
Open accessAbstract
The outbreak of the SARS-CoV-2 novel coronavirus (COVID-19) has been accompanied by a large amount of misleading and false information about the virus, especially on social media. In this article, we explore the coronavirus “infodemic” and how behavioral scientists may seek to address this problem. We detail the scope of the problem and discuss the negative influence that COVID-19 misinformation can have on the widespread adoption of health protective behaviors in the population. In response, we explore how insights from the behavioral sciences can be leveraged to manage an effective societal response to curb the spread of misinformation about the virus. In particular, we discuss the theory of psychological inoculation (or prebunking) as an efficient vehicle for conferring large-scale psychological resistance against fake news.
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“46% of people in the UK and 48% of people in the United States were exposed to false information.”
From The Lancet Commission on lessons for the future from the COVID-19 pandemic (2022) · cites this paper as [242]
In the citing paper
“All countries proved to be highly vulnerable to disinformation and misinformation regarding the pandemic”
From The Lancet Commission on lessons for the future from the COVID-19 pandemic (2022) · cites this paper as [242]
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BackgroundCoronavirus Pandemic (COVID-19)
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A prosocial fake news intervention with durable effects
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Regilme, S. (2023) · British Journal of Politics & International Relations · doi:10.1177/13691481231178247 · Cited by 20
Combating Fake News on Social Media: A Framework, Review, and Future Opportunities
Nasery, M., Turel, O., & Yuan, Y. (2023) · Communications of the Association for Information Systems · doi:10.17705/1cais.05335 · Cited by 33
An empiric validation of linguistic features in machine learning models for fake news detection
Puraivan, E., René Venegas, V., & Riquelme, F. (2023) · Data & Knowledge Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.datak.2023.102207 · Cited by 25
Communicating expert consensus increases personal support for COVID‐19 mitigation policies
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Lasco, G., & Yu, V. G. (2021) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.114567 · Cited by 25
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Study on the Vaccination of the Population of Romania against Monkeypox in Terms of Medical Security
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Jiang, L. C., Sun, M.-R., Chu, T.-H., & Chia, S. C. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.976091 · Cited by 19
Personality and misinformation
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Numbers Do Not Lie: A Bibliometric Examination of Machine Learning Techniques in Fake News Research
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Negacionismo climático e desinformação online
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Classifying social media bots as malicious or benign using semi-supervised machine learning
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Panic buying and fake news in urban vs. rural England: A case study of twitter during COVID-19
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Motta, M. (2024) · doi:10.1093/9780197788844.001.0001 · Cited by 26
Citizen Science on Twitter: Using Data Analytics to Understand Conversations and Networks
Suvodeep Mazumdar, A., & Thakker, D. (2020) · Future Internet · doi:10.3390/fi12120210 · Cited by 23
“…have played in suppressing or flagging misinformation [76], albeit with varying levels of success and criticisms (Politico’s analysis of Facebook content indicates the spread of misinformation despite…”
BackgroundBoman, C. D. (2023) · Journal of Public Relations Research · doi:10.1080/1062726x.2023.2195184 · Cited by 8
“…of preemptively countering false information about societal hot topics such as climate change (e.g., Maertens et al., 2020), combatting COVID-19 (mis/dis)information (e.g., Van der Linden et al., 2020), and fake news (e.g., Roozenbeek and van der Linden, 2019; Roozenbeek & van der Linden, 2020).”
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Mazepus, H., Osmudsen, M., Bang-Petersen, M., Toshkov, D., & Dimitrova, A. L. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0282308 · Cited by 30
“Why do people believe and share unsubstantiated information like rumors and false news? One view–which also guides prominent efforts to fact-check and inoculate citizens against falsehoods [18, 19]–claims that people want to read, believe and share accurate information but lack the cognitive resources or time to weed…”
BackgroundMean rating difference scores are poor measures of discernment: The role of response criteria
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Confronting misinformation related to health and the environment: a systematic review
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Addressing Covid-19 Vaccination Conspiracy Theories and Vaccination Intentions
Pummerer, L., Winter, K., & Sassenberg, K. (2022) · European Journal of Health Communication · doi:10.47368/ejhc.2022.201 · Cited by 19
Information needs and seeking behaviors of Israeli citizens during the COVID-19 outbreak
Yavetz, G., Aharony, N., & Sofer, Y. Y. (2022) · Aslib Journal of Information Management · doi:10.1108/ajim-06-2021-0167 · Cited by 18
Theivendrampillai, S., Cooper, J., Lee, T., Lau, M. W. K., Marquez, C., Straus, S. E., & Fahim, C. (2023) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-023-15659-y · Cited by 18
“The novelty of the virus and lack of evidence enabled opportunities for misinterpretation of data and for the sharing of inaccurate information [1].”
BackgroundHow the fear of COVID-19 changed the way we look at human faces
Federico, G., Ferrante, D., Marcatto, F., & Brandimonte, M. A. (2021) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.11380 · Cited by 19
Artificial Intelligence and Applications
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Is Multi-Modal Necessarily Better? Robustness Evaluation of Multi-Modal Fake News Detection
Chen, J., Jia, C., Zheng, H., Chen, R., & Fu, C. (2023) · IEEE Transactions on Network Science and Engineering · doi:10.1109/tnse.2023.3249290 · Cited by 17
“Moreover, during the outbreak of the COVID-19, lots of fake news about this pandemic on social media have harmed people’s health-protective behaviors [2].”
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“According to van Der Linden et al. [8], information that is inconsistent with the facts about the natural history, epidemiology, and clinical outcomes of COVID-19 have been produced from all kinds of sources, including the political and scientific world as well as from the social media [9].”
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“also a means of creating a kind of “herd immunity” against the infodemic [21].”
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Warren, G. W., & Löfstedt, R. E. (2021) · Journal of Risk Research · doi:10.1080/13669877.2021.2001674 · Cited by 17
“…the COVID-19 infodemic have stymied efforts to establish the high rate of vaccination needed to reduce reliance on Non-Pharmaceutical Interventions (NPIs) to stop community spread of COVID-19 (van der Linden, Roozenbeek, and Compton 2020; Zarocostas 2020; Bartsch et al. 2020; Sherman et al. 2021).”
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Yas, H., Jusoh, A., Štreimikienė, D., Mardani, A., Nor, K. M., Alatawi, A., & Umarlebbe, J. H. (2021) · International Journal of Sustainable Development and Planning · doi:10.18280/ijsdp.160202 · Cited by 22
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“Consequently, those with higher trust in media would be less aware of fake news in their daily interactions with new media (Van Der Linden et al., 2020), which in turn could reduce PEF and critical insights into the media environment.”
Ng, Q. X., Lee, D. Y. X., Ng, C. X., Yau, C. E., Lim, Y. L., & Liew, T. M. (2023) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines11061018 · Cited by 16
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“Another important strategy that can work against fake news is the inoculation [8] of subjects to strengthen their detection skills—this is not a corrective mechanism but a preventive strategy placed on the side of the intended target.”
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Misinformation in Germany During the Covid-19 Pandemic
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Machine Learning-Based Identifications of COVID-19 Fake News Using Biomedical Information Extraction
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“In general, our findings show that stakeholders relying on the infrastructures should be aware of the differences as the analyzed aspects affect perception and spread of misinformation (e.g., Brennen et al. 2020; Grinberg et al. 2019; Shin et al. 2018; van der Linden, Roozenbeek, and Compton 2020).”
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“This is also true in the context of online communications relating to the COVID-19 pandemic [8,9].”
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“Van Der Linden, Roozenbeek, and Compton (2020) support the theory of psychological inoculation, otherwise referred to as pre-bunking.”
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“Many difficulties in separating true and reliable information on COVID-19 pandemic from false and inappropriate information were reported (20).”
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Using fuzzy transform for sustainable fake news detection
Gedara, T. M. H., Loia, V., & Tomasiello, S. (2023) · Applied Soft Computing · doi:10.1016/j.asoc.2023.111173 · Cited by 13
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Managing the infodemic about COVID‐19: Strategies for clinicians and researchers
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“Recent fake news related to COVID-19, lockdowns, and vaccinations shared on social media has also contributed to disruptive behaviors and social unrest (Marco-Franco et al., 2021; van der Linden et al., 2020).”
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“In addition, misinformation can distort people’s risk perception about the disease and potentially lead to the rejection of information from the authorities [36,37].”
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An Infodemiology and Infoveillance Study on COVID-19: Analysis of Twitter and Google Trends
Alshahrani, R., & Babour, A. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su13158528 · Cited by 13
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A Systematic Review on the Detection of Fake News Articles
Hoy, N., & Koulouri, T. (2021) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2110.11240 · Cited by 16
“In more recent times, events such as the riots at the Capitol and the anti-vaxxer movement against the COVID-19 vaccine have suggested that fake news can contribute to the damage of national security and public health [6].”
Estimating cost of fighting against fake news during catastrophic situations
Jo, H., Park, S., Shin, D., Shin, J., & Lee, C. (2021) · Telematics and Informatics · doi:10.1016/j.tele.2021.101734 · Cited by 12
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The polarizing content warning: how the media can reduce affective polarization
Kubin, E., & von Sikorski, C. (2024) · Human Communication Research · doi:10.1093/hcr/hqae006 · Cited by 13
Effective Strategies for Learning and Teaching in Times of Science Denial and Disinformation
Busch, K. C., & Lombardi, D. (2025) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.70003 · Cited by 10
Content analysis of promotional material for asthma-related products and therapies on Instagram
Heineman, B. D., Jewell, M., Moran, M. J., Bradley, K., Spitzer, K. A., & Lindenauer, P. K. (2021) · Allergy Asthma and Clinical Immunology · doi:10.1186/s13223-021-00528-3 · Cited by 10
Bautista, J. R., Zhang, Y., & Jacek Gwizdka, A. (2022) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-96960-8_19 · Cited by 10
Ferrell, D., & Campos‐Castillo, C. (2022) · JMIR Infodemiology · doi:10.2196/34525 · Cited by 9
GAN-Based Unsupervised Learning Approach to Generate and Detect Fake News
Bhardwaj, P., Yadav, K. K., Alsharif, H., & Aboalela, R. (2023) · Lecture notes in networks and systems · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-22018-0_37 · Cited by 10
Byrne, J., Marston, A., & Grace, M. M. (2022) · Journal of Biological Education · doi:10.1080/00219266.2021.2020874 · Cited by 11
“…COVID-19; for example, that the 5 G mobile phone network is causing or exacerbates the virus, that the virus was bioengineered in a lab in Wuhan, or that President Trump’s claims that injecting bleach or other disinfectant is a cure for COVID-19 (van der Linden, Roozenbeek, and Compton 2020).”
BackgroundInfluentialRudolph, J., Rong, C. S., & Tan, S. (2021) · Journal of Education, Innovation, and Communication. · doi:10.34097/jeicom-3-1-june21-3 · Cited by 10
Sobierajski, T., Rzymski, P., & Wanke-Rytt, M. (2023) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines11050994 · Cited by 10
Ability to detect fake news predicts sub-national variation in COVID-19 vaccine uptake across the UKPreprint
Loomba, S., Maertens, R., Roozenbeek, J., Götz, F. M., van der Linden, S., & de Figueiredo, A. (2023) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2023.05.10.23289764 · Cited by 11
“Establishing whether misinformation susceptibility predicts observed vaccine uptake more generally is a major open question, and one that informs efforts to reduce the adverse effects of exposure to misinformation [13, 14].”
BackgroundSelf-citationPeriodismo y Crisis Sanitarias
Márquez-Ramírez, M., Manzo, K. D. A., Cárcamo, L. R., Cárdenas, A., Castrillón, L. R., Sánchez, Á. I. H., & Rueda, A. (2022) · Global Media Journal México · doi:10.29105/gmjmx18.35-11 · Cited by 9
Ventsel, A., Hansson, S., Rickberg, M., & Madisson, M.-L. (2023) · Armed Forces & Society · doi:10.1177/0095327x231163265 · Cited by 9
“One approach to media literacy interventions against misinfor-mation that has gained a lot of attention in recent years is game-based learning (Roozenbeek & van der Linden, 2019a, 2020; Literat et al., 2020; van der Linden et al., 2020).”
Güss, C. D., Boyd, L., Perniciaro, K., Free, D. C., Free, J., & Tuason, M. T. (2023) · Health Policy OPEN · doi:10.1016/j.hpopen.2023.100107 · Cited by 9
“While skepticism, especially among the general public, can be conspiratorial or bizarre in nature [5,6], there is a genuine and appropriate concern regarding the effectiveness of mass-behavioral methods [7].”
Verma, A., & Nayak, J. K. (2024) · Journal of Information Communication and Ethics in Society · doi:10.1108/jices-05-2023-0073 · Cited by 10
Pietrantonio, F., Florczak, M., Kühn, S., Karberg, K., Leung, T. I., Said-Criado, I., Sikorski, S., Ruggeri, M., Signorini, A., Rosiello, F., et al. (2024) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2024.1370555 · Cited by 12
Radwan, A. F., Mousa, S. A., Ayyad, K., & Adulzaher, M. H. (2025) · Public Relations Inquiry · doi:10.1177/2046147x251360062 · Cited by 13
“This shift is reshaping PR practices while raising ethical concerns about AI-generated content reliability, trans-parency, and the potential displacement of human communicators (Van der Linden et al., 2020).”
Park, E. G., Kim, S., & Cameron, G. T. (2022) · Journal of Community Health · doi:10.1007/s10900-022-01100-9 · Cited by 9
Özdinç, A., Değer, M. S., Atak, M., & Demir, İ. (2023) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines11010104 · Cited by 9
“Emphasizing the spread of significant amounts of misinformation and news about COVID-19 on social media, researchers have highlighted the use of fear-mongering and fake experts and the implementation of strategies supported by psychology that increase the ability to identify more honest or reliable news against conspi…”
BackgroundNazari, A., Hosseinnia, M., Pirzadeh, A., & Salahshouri, A. (2023) · HLRP Health Literacy Research and Practice · doi:10.3928/24748307-20230621-01 · Cited by 12
“Fake news about COVID-19 began to spread at the beginning of the epidemic (van der Linden et al., 2020).”
ABC-Verify: AI-Blockchain Integrated Framework for Tweet Misinformation Detection
Zen, T. H. Y., Hong, C. B., Mohan, P., & Balachandran, V. (2021) · IEEE International Conference on Service Operations and Logistics, and Informatics (SOLI) · doi:10.1109/soli54607.2021.9672392 · Cited by 9
Tanase, L.-M., Kerr, J. R., Freeman, A. L. J., & Schneider, C. R. (2022) · Royal Society Open Science · doi:10.1098/rsos.212013 · Cited by 9
Johnson, T., & Kromka, S. M. (2023) · Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2022.0204 · Cited by 9
Misinformation about COVID-19: Psychological Insights
Anastasiades, E., Argyrides, M., & Mousoulidou, M. (2021) · Encyclopedia · doi:10.3390/encyclopedia1040091 · Cited by 10
“, Jolley and Paterson [61]), as well as mob attacks [5].”
InfluentialThe relation between authoritarian leadership and belief in fake news
Ospina, J., Orosz, G., & Spencer, S. J. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-39807-x · Cited by 10
“They informed and prepared participants about various ways they can be misinformed (inoculation 31–33 ), or targeted media literacy skill development 34–40 .”
Dong, X., Lian, X., & Lian, Y. (2025) · Information Processing & Management · doi:10.1016/j.ipm.2025.104131 · Cited by 9
Empirical evaluation of link deletion methods for limiting information diffusion on social media
Furukawa, S., & Tsugawa, S. (2022) · Social Network Analysis and Mining · doi:10.1007/s13278-022-00994-6 · Cited by 8
“In addition, it has been reported that an increasing number of people are relying on misleading information on social media and as a result are hesitant to get vaccinated without first seeking professional advice (van der Linden et al. 2020).”
Metadata
- Authors
- van der Linden, S., Roozenbeek, J., & Compton, J.
- Affiliations
- University of Cambridge (GB)
- Dartmouth College (US)
- Corresponding author
- van der Linden, Sander
- Venue
- Frontiers in Psychology
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2020-10-23
- Volume
- 11
- Pages
- 566790-566790
- ISSN
- 1664-1078 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7644779
- OpenAlex
- W3094229442
- Cited by
- 632
- References
- 60
- Citations by year
- 2026: 70 · 2025: 71 · 2024: 127 · 2023: 120 · 2022: 143 · 2021: 98 · 2020: 3
- FWCI
- 121.73
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Frontiers in Psychology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Apollo (University of Cambridge) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Apollo (cc-by)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Misinformation and Its Impacts
- Social Sciences › Communication › Communication and COVID-19 Impact
- Social Sciences › Library and Information Sciences › Academic Publishing and Open Access
- Keywords
- COVID-19 pandemic, misinformation, infodemic, fake news, psychological inoculation, prebunking, preventive health behavior, social media, behavioral interventions, SARS-CoV-2
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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