Cumulative Emissions of CO2 for Electric and Combustion Cars: A Case Study on Specific Models
Open accessAbstract
This work includes calculations of the cumulative CO2 emissions of two comparable cars—the VW Golf VII—one with a combustion engine and the other with an electric motor. Calculation of CO2 emissions was performed, taking into account the stages of production, utilization and use of the above-mentioned vehicles. For the use phase, it was assumed that the total mileage of the car will be 150,000 km over 10 years. For the electric vehicle, calculations were made assuming five different sources of electricity (from coal only, from natural gas only, from PV and wind turbines, an average mix of European power sources and an average mix of Polish power sources; W1–W5 designations, respectively). For individual sources of electricity, cumulative CO2 emissions were taken into account, that is, resulting both from the production of electricity and the use of the resources (for example, technical service per 1 kWh of electricity produced). The obtained results of the analysis show that for the adopted assumptions regarding operation, for variants W2–W5, the use of an electric car results in lower cumulative CO2 emission than a the use of a combustion car. For a combustion car, the value was 37,000 kg-CO2, and for an electric car, depending on the variant, the value was 43, 31, 16, 23 and 34 thousand kg-CO2 for variants W1 to W5, respectively. Based on the emissions results obtained for individual stages of the use of selected vehicles, a comparative analysis of cumulative CO2 emissions was performed. The purpose of this analysis was to determine whether the replacement of an existing combustion car (that has already been manufactured; therefore, this part of the analysis does not include CO2 emissions in the production stage) with a new electric car, which has to be manufactured, therefore associated with additional CO2 emissions, would reduce cumulative CO2 emissions. Considering three adopted average annual car mileages (3000, 7500 and 15,000 km) and the previously described power options (W1–W5), we sought an answer as to whether the use of a new electric car would be burdened with lower cumulative CO2 emissions. In this case we assumed an analysis time of 15 years. For the worst variant from the point of view of CO2 emissions (W1, electricity from coal power sources only), further use of a combustion car is associated with lower cumulative CO2 emissions than the purchase of a new electric car over the entire analyzed period of 15 years. In turn, for the most advantageous variant (W3, electricity from PV or wind power sources) with an annual mileage of 3000 km, the purchase of a new electric car results in higher cumulative CO2 emissions throughout the analyzed period, whereas for an annual milage of 7500 or 15,000 km, replacing the car with an electric car “pays back” in terms of cumulative CO2 emissions after 8.5 or 4 years, respectively.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
First-generation biofuel production costs often exceed fossil fuels, necessitating ongoing policy support through mandates and subsidies.
“However, their production costs often exceed those of fossil fuels, necessitating ongoing policy support through mandates and subsidies [102,389].”
From Biofuels, E-Fuels, and Waste-Derived Fuels: Advances, Challenges, and Future Directions (2025) · cites this paper as [389]
Section 3.2.2 discusses CO₂ emissions from gasoline production, not the cost of producing first-generation biofuels. Searches for biofuel production costs and policy support through mandates or subsidies found no passage addressing the claim in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Recycling lithium-ion batteries from electric vehicles
Harper, G., Sommerville, R., Kendrick, E., Driscoll, L., Slater, P., Stolkin, R., Walton, A., Christensen, P., Heidrich, O., Lambert, S., et al. (2019) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1682-5 · Cited by 3,890 · see citing works
Sustainable Recycling Technology for Li-Ion Batteries and Beyond: Challenges and Future Prospects
Fan, E., Li, L., Wang, Z., Lin, J., Huang, Y., Yao, Y., Chen, R., & Wu, F. (2020) · Chemical Reviews · doi:10.1021/acs.chemrev.9b00535 · Cited by 2,041 · see citing works
Comparative Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of Conventional and Electric Vehicles
Hawkins, T. R., Singh, B., Majeau‐Bettez, G., & Strømman, A. H. (2013) · Journal of Industrial Ecology · doi:10.1111/j.1530-9290.2012.00532.x · Cited by 1,670 · see citing works
CO2 emission sources, greenhouse gases, and the global warming effect
Yoro, K. O., & Daramola, M. O. (2020) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-819657-1.00001-3 · Cited by 992 · see citing works
Holmberg, K., & Erdemir, A. (2019) · Tribology International · doi:10.1016/j.triboint.2019.03.024 · Cited by 690 · see citing works
Majeau-Bettez, G., Hawkins, T. R., & Strømman, A. H. (2011) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/es103607c · Cited by 662 · see citing works
Life cycle assessment of lithium-ion batteries for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles–Critical issues
Zackrisson, M., Avellán, L., & Orlenius, J. (2010) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2010.06.004 · Cited by 551 · see citing works
Global desertification vulnerability to climate change and human activities
Huang, J., Zhang, G., Zhang, Y., Guan, X., Wei, Y. X., & Guo, R. (2020) · Land Degradation and Development · doi:10.1002/ldr.3556 · Cited by 369 · see citing works
Martins, L. S., Guimarães, L. F., Botelho Junior, A. B., Tenório, J. A. S., & Espinosa, D. C. R. (2021) · Journal of Environmental Management · doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.113091 · Cited by 361 · see citing works
Kawamoto, R., Mochizuki, H., Moriguchi, Y., Nakano, T., Motohashi, M., Sakai, Y., & Inaba, A. (2019) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su11092690 · Cited by 321 · see citing works
Cradle-to-Gate Emissions from a Commercial Electric Vehicle Li-Ion Battery: A Comparative Analysis
Kim, H. C., Wallington, T. J., Arsenault, R., Bae, C., Ahn, S., & Lee, J. (2016) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.6b00830 · Cited by 312 · see citing works
Haustein, S., & Jensen, A. F. (2018) · International Journal of Sustainable Transportation · doi:10.1080/15568318.2017.1398790 · Cited by 303 · see citing works
Wang, L., Wang, X., & Yang, W. (2020) · Applied Energy · doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.115328 · Cited by 277 · see citing works
de Souza, L. L. P., Lora, E. E. S., Palácio, J. C. E., Rocha, M. H., Renó, M. L. G., & Venturini, O. J. (2018) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.08.236 · Cited by 264 · see citing works
Teixeira, A. C. R., & Sodré, J. R. (2018) · Transportation Research Part D Transport and Environment · doi:10.1016/j.trd.2018.01.004 · Cited by 236 · see citing works
Ellingsen, L. A.-W., Hung, C. R., & Strømman, A. H. (2017) · Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment · doi:10.1016/j.trd.2017.06.028 · Cited by 205 · see citing works
Pero, F. D., Delogu, M., & Pierini, M. (2018) · Procedia Structural Integrity · doi:10.1016/j.prostr.2018.11.066 · Cited by 201 · see citing works
EU road vehicle energy consumption and CO2 emissions by 2050—Expert-based scenarios
Krause, J., Thiel, C., Tsokolis, D., Samaras, Z., Rota, C., Ward, A., Prenninger, P., Coosemans, T., Neugebauer, S., & Verhoeve, W. (2020) · Energy Policy · doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2019.111224 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
Nanotechnology for environmentally sustainable electromobility
Ellingsen, L. A., Hung, C. R., Majeau‐Bettez, G., Singh, B., Chen, Z., Whittingham, M. S., & Strømman, A. H. (2016) · Nature Nanotechnology · doi:10.1038/nnano.2016.237 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
Bieker, G. (2021) · Cited by 151 · see citing works
Danielis, R., Giansoldati, M., & Rotaris, L. (2018) · Energy Policy · doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.024 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
Alataş, S. (2021) · Research in Transportation Economics · doi:10.1016/j.retrec.2021.101047 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Helmers, E., Dietz, J., & Weiss, M. (2020) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su12031241 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Zeb, K., Islam, S. U., Khan, I., Uddin, W., Ishfaq, M., Busarello, T. D. C., Muyeen, S. M., Ahmad, I., & Kim, H. J. (2022) · Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.rser.2022.112125 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Plötz, P., Funke, S., & Jochem, P. E. P. (2018) · Transportation Research Part A Policy and Practice · doi:10.1016/j.tra.2018.09.018 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Analysis of backup power supply for unreliable grid using hybrid solar PV/diesel/biogas system
Sanni, S. O., Oricha, J. Y., Oyewole, T. O., & Bawonda, F. I. (2021) · Energy · doi:10.1016/j.energy.2021.120506 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
The Development of Electromobility in Poland and EU States as a Tool for Management of CO2 Emissions
Tucki, K., Orynycz, O. A., Świć, A., & Mitoraj-Wojtanek, M. (2019) · Energies · doi:10.3390/en12152942 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Athanasopoulou, L., Bikas, H., & Stavropoulos, P. G. (2018) · Procedia CIRP · doi:10.1016/j.procir.2018.08.169 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Wanitschke, A., & Hoffmann, S. (2019) · Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions · doi:10.1016/j.eist.2019.03.003 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Ehrenberger, S., Konrad, M., & Philipps, F. (2020) · Atmospheric Environment · doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2020.117612 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Willingness to Pay for $$\hbox {CO}_2$$ Emission Reductions in Passenger Car Transport
Hulshof, D., & Mulder, M. (2020) · Environmental and Resource Economics · doi:10.1007/s10640-020-00411-6 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Development of an Integrated Simulation Model for Load and Mobility Profiles of Private Households
Müller, M., Biedenbach, F., & Reinhard, J. (2020) · Energies · doi:10.3390/en13153843 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Prussi, M., Yugo, M., Luis, D. P., et al. (2020) · Joint Research Centre (European Commission) · doi:10.2760/959137 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Atmospheric Temperature and CO2: Hen-Or-Egg Causality?
Koutsoyiannis, D., & Kundzewicz, Z. W. (2020) · Sci · doi:10.3390/sci2040083 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Life Cycle Assessment of Lithium-ion Batteries for Plug-in Hybrid Buses
Olofsson, Y., & Romare, M. (2013) · Chalmers Publication Library (Chalmers University of Technology) · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Atmospheric Temperature and CO2: Hen-or-Egg Causality?
Koutsoyiannis, D., & Kundzewicz, Z. W. (2020) · Sci · doi:10.3390/sci2030072 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Energy and environmental implications of electromobility implementation in Poland
Plewa, F., & Strozik, G. (2019) · IOP Conference Series Earth and Environmental Science · doi:10.1088/1755-1315/261/1/012042 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Photovoltaic System Sizing for Reliability Improvement in an unreliable Power Distribution System
Kebede, F. S., Bourguet, S., & Olivier, J.-C. (2020) · doi:10.1109/ever48776.2020.9243063 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Trela, M. (2019) · Ochrona Środowiska i Zasobów Naturalnych · doi:10.2478/oszn-2019-0017 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
The Costs of Charging Electric Vehicles in Poland
Sendek-Matysiak, E., & Rzędowski, H. (2021) · Communications - Scientific letters of the University of Zilina · doi:10.26552/com.c.2022.1.a1-a11 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Bessaoud, M. M., & Timmaoui, A. (2021) · Finance and Business Economies Review · doi:10.58205/fber.v5i2.1001 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 3
- Gis, M. Emisja dwutlenku węgla z transportu drogowego-cz. 1 samochody klasy LDV. Transp. Samoch. 2017, 4, 67-76.
- Maas, H.; Reid, A.; Nelson AGodwin, S.; Rose, K.D.; Lonza, L.; Edwards, R.; Hass, H.; Huss, A.; Krasenbrink, A.l. Well-to-Wheels Analysis of Future Automotive Fuels and Powertrains in the European Context: Well-to-Tank Appendix 4; Institute for Environment and Sustainability (Joint Research Centre): Ispra, Italy, 2013. [CrossRef] · DOI
- Edenhofer, O. (Ed.) Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2015; Volume 3.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Guzek, M., Jackowski, J., Jurecki, R., Szumska, E., Zdanowicz, P., & Żmuda, M. (2024) · Energies · doi:10.3390/en17010249 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Biofuels, E-Fuels, and Waste-Derived Fuels: Advances, Challenges, and Future Directions
Yılbaşı, Z. (2025) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su17136145 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
CO2 Emissions of Battery Electric Vehicles and Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles
Dulău, L. I. (2023) · Clean Technologies · doi:10.3390/cleantechnol5020035 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Zadobrischi, E., & Havriliuc, Ș. (2024) · Electronics · doi:10.3390/electronics13142845 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Review of Economic, Technical and Environmental Aspects of Electric Vehicles
Koniak, M., Jaskowski, P., & Tomczuk, K. (2024) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su16229849 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Selected Problems of the Automotive Industry—Material and Economic Risk
Richert, M. W., & Дудек, М. (2023) · Journal of risk and financial management · doi:10.3390/jrfm16080368 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Towards net-zero reinforced concrete: A critical review
Mi, R., Rengaraju, S., & Al‐Tabbaa, A. (2025) · Cement and Concrete Composites · doi:10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2025.106187 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Car Engines Comparative Analysis: Sustainable Approach
Grzesiak, S. S., & Sulich, A. (2022) · Energies · doi:10.3390/en15145170 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Frauscher, M., Agocs, A., Wopelka, T., Ristić, A., Ronai, B., Holub, F., & Payer, W. (2023) · Fuel · doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2023.130102 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Decarbonization in Mexico by extending the charging stations network for electric vehicles
Ruiz‐Barajas, F., Ramírez–Nafarrate, A., & Olivares-Benítez, E. (2023) · Results in Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.rineng.2023.101422 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Parameter Optimization Method for Power System of Medium-Sized Bus Based on Orthogonal Test
Wang, X., Ye, P., Zhang, Y., Ni, H., Deng, Y., Lv, S., Yuan, Y., & Zhu, Y. (2022) · Energies · doi:10.3390/en15197243 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Multiobjective model to optimize charging station location for the decarbonization process in Mexico
Ruiz‐Barajas, F., Olivares-Benítez, E., Ramírez–Nafarrate, A., & González‐Ramírez, R. G. (2025) · International Transactions in Operational Research · doi:10.1111/itor.13611 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Bhattarai, K., & Yousef, M. (2025) · World regional geography book series · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-83967-2_6 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Bartolucci, L., Cennamo, E., Cordiner, S., Mulone, V., Pasqualini, F., & Tatangelo, C. (2022) · Journal of Physics Conference Series · doi:10.1088/1742-6596/2385/1/012079 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Arikuşu, Y. S., Bayhan, N., & Tiryaki, H. (2023) · Energies · doi:10.3390/en16247970 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Horváth, G., Bai, A., Szegedi, S., Lázár, I., Máthé, C., Huzsvai, L., Zakar, M., Gabnai, Z., & Tóth, T. (2023) · Energies · doi:10.3390/en16145421 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Management Supply Chains Electric Vehicle Battery Recycling
Koval, V. V., Sribna, Y., Prokopenko, O. V., Filipishyna, L., Івата, В. В., & Arsawan, I. W. E. (2023) · Green energy and technology · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-30800-0_3 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Lasota, M. K., Zabielska, A., Jacyna, M., & Żak, J. (2023) · Silniki Spalinowe/Combustion Engines · doi:10.19206/ce-169845 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Andrenacci, N., Giuli, G., Genovese, A., & Pede, G. (2024) · World Electric Vehicle Journal · doi:10.3390/wevj15050197 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Bittencourt, T. C., Fagundes, J. T., & Evald, P. J. D. D. O. (2024) · Seminar on Power Electronics and Control (SEPOC) · doi:10.1109/sepoc63090.2024.10747468 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Greenhouse Gas Emissions Estimation with Electric Vehicles Penetration in the Brazilian Power Grid
Melo, V. S. D., Camargo, R. S., Krebel, F., Brunoro, M., Nunes, W. T., Fernandes, M. C., & Nunes, R. B. (2023) · IEEE International Conference on Industry Applications · doi:10.1109/induscon58041.2023.10374611 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Sendek-Matysiak, E. (2026) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su18020553 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
High School Understanding of the Cradle-to-Grave Process of Electric Vehicles
Oroszlan, D. (2023) · Journal of Student Research · doi:10.47611/jsrhs.v12i4.5868 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Economic implications of a phased‐in EV mandate in Canada
McKitrick, R. (2024) · Canadian Journal of Economics/Revue canadienne d économique · doi:10.1111/caje.12745 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Lifecycle Carbon Footprint Calculation of Hand-Held Tool Propulsion Concepts
Vogiatzis, D., Merschak, S., Schacht, H.-J., Schmidt, S. P., & Arenz, M. (2023) · SAE technical papers on CD-ROM/SAE technical paper series · doi:10.4271/2023-01-0553
REDUCTION OF EXHAUST EMISSIONS FROM MOTOR VEHICLES USING EXHAUST GAS RECIRCULATION (EGR) SYSTEM
Busarina, A. E., Korablev, R. A., Zimarin, M., Kozinov, O., & Mariev, G. (2024) · doi:10.58168/dmsttp2024_15-30
A Predictive Analysis of Life Cycle Emissions of CO2 in Electric Vehicles Using Machine Learning
Koilery, S. S. N., Muhammad, R., Karalakath, N. F. P., Rasheed, A. A., & Revathi, M. (2024) · International Conference on Electrical, Electronics, Information and Communication Technologies (ICEEICT) · doi:10.1109/iceeict61591.2024.10718552
Evaluación económica de vehículos eléctricos para incentivar el cambio tecnológico
Jimenez-García, J. A., Tovar, R. T., Gaspar-Sánchez, N., López, V. M. D., Hernández, H. A. H., & Mendoza, G. L. (2025) · Tendencias en energías renovables y sustentabilidad . · doi:10.56845/terys.v4i1.477
Giourka, P., Petridis, S., Seitaridis, A., Angelakoglou, K., Martinopoulos, G., Kosmatopoulos, E. B., & Nikolopoulos, N. (2025) · Energies · doi:10.3390/en18236215
Kowalska, A., & Bråthen, S. (2026) · Journal of Transport and Sustainability · doi:10.1108/jtas-08-2025-0050
Redefining sustainability in travel and hospitality to achieve net-zero tourism
Olawade, D. B., Wada, O. Z., Ijiwade, J. O., & Adeniji, Y. J. (2026) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-44454-8.00017-0
Usman, M., Ahmed, A. R., Ali, M. S., Irshad, M., Basha, M. S., Abbas, N., & Samykano, M. (2026) · Energy Conversion and Management X · doi:10.1016/j.ecmx.2026.102167
Characteristics of lithium-ion battery heat generation measured by Isothermal Immersion calorimeter
Park, S. H., Kim, H. S., Yook, S., & Kim, Y. W. (2026) · Journal of Mechanical Science and Technology · doi:10.1007/s12206-026-0625-y
Farhadi, P., Moghaddas‐Tafreshi, S. M., & Shahirinia, A. H. (2026) · World Electric Vehicle Journal · doi:10.3390/wevj17080408
- Authors
- Neugebauer, M., Żebrowski, A., & Esmer, O.
- Affiliations
- University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn (PL)
- Ege University (TR)
- Corresponding author
- Neugebauer, Maciej
- ORCID
- Neugebauer, Maciej
- Venue
- Energies
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2022-04-06
- Volume
- 15
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- 2703
- ISSN
- 1996-1073 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4224300992
- Cited by
- 34
- References
- 40
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 3
- FWCI
- 1.92
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Energies (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn (POWR.03.05. 00-00-Z310/17)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Electric Vehicles and Infrastructure
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Automotive Engineering › Vehicle emissions and performance
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › Environmental Impact and Sustainability
- Keywords
- cumulative CO2 emissions, electric vehicles, electricity mix, coal-fired power generation, natural gas power, renewable energy, vehicle replacement, vehicle cost, vehicle safety, vehicle comfort
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
