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The Association between Future Anxiety, Health Literacy and the Perception of the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Cross-Sectional Study
Open accessAbstract
Increased anxiety related to the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic in society and specific professional groups has been reported by many authors. Most have applied tools enabling assessing the general traits of anxiety. Tools specifically designed for an assessment of anxiety or fear related to COVID-19 have also been developed. However, no study has assessed the future anxiety in relation to the pandemic. This concept was defined by Zaleski in the end of the 20th century as the state of apprehension, fear, worry, and concern regarding unfavourable changes in the more remote personal future. The aim of this study was an analysis to establish the level and the determinants of future anxiety in Polish society related to the COVID-19 pandemic three months after the introduction of the state of epidemic. The analysis reported in the paper is based on the data obtained through a web-based survey carried out on a representative sample of 1002 Polish adults aged 18–74 years. The hierarchical linear regression model was developed for the analysis of the determinants of future anxiety from the responses to a questionnaire consisting of five items. The independent variables selected for inclusion in the model, apart from sociodemographic characteristics, encompassed health literacy (HL) and ehealth literacy (eHL), perceived health threat related to COVID-19 (PHTC19), and a COVID-19-related conspiracy belief score (CCBS) derived from three items asking about the most popular conspiracy theories. The regression model developed in the final step showed that the future anxiety scale score (FASS) was significantly associated with gender, vocational status, HL, PHTC19, and CCBS. The FASS was lower among men than women (regression coefficient (B) (standard error, SE) = −1.28 (0.39), p = 0.001), among entrepreneurs or farmers rather than among employees of the public or private sector (B(SE) = −1.55, p = 0.010), in persons with a higher HL (B(SE) = −0.43 (0.06), p < 0.001). A higher FASS was observed in respondents with higher rather than lower PHTC19 (B(SE) = 1.49 (0.17), p < 0.001) and in those with a higher CCBS (B(SE) = 0.33 (0.07), p < 0.001). The model accounted for 15.2% of the variance of the FASS. In conclusion, the COVID-19 pandemic is not only a cause of increased mental symptoms, but also of increased future anxiety. Health-related measures are significantly associated with the FASS.
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“The COVID-19 pandemic increased anxiety regarding the future [33,34,35].”
From COVID-19 Victimization Experience and College Students’ Mobile Phone Addiction: A Moderated Mediation Effect of Future Anxiety and Mindfulness (2022) · cites this paper as [33]
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van Mulukom, V., Pummerer, L., Alper, S., Bai, H., Čavojová, V., Farias, J. E. M., Kay, C. S., Lazarević, L. B., Lobato, E. J. C., Marinthe, G., et al. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/u8yah · Cited by 71
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“, 2021), future anxiety (Duplaga and Grysztar, 2021), and also lower wellbeing (Spasovski and Kenig, 2020; van Prooijen et al.”
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“Future Anxiety and Intolerance of Uncertainty have been investigated in contexts of war and other traumatic events such as pandemics [61,62,70,72], showing that among youths, both are vulnerability and are risk factors that fuel mental suffering, as confirmed in our findings.”
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A Visualized and Scientometric Analysis of Health Literacy Research
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“Recent research has also explored the relationship between Future Anxiety, collective phenomena with trauma potential (e.g., pandemic, war) and psychological distress and highlighted its function as a risk factor in exacerbating the impact of such events on mental health [20,48–50].”
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Pourfridoni, M., Khan, M. A., Daneshi, S., Vazirinasab, H., Nosrati, Z., & Daneshi‐Maskooni, M. (2022) · Brain and Behavior · doi:10.1002/brb3.2586 · Cited by 14
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“Although developed only recently, the DFS has already been applied in different populations, including samples from Poland (Duplaga & Grysztar, 2021; Sobol et al., 2020), Italy (Rapelli et al., 2021; Scandurra et al., 2021), Germany (Dadaczynski et al., 2021), Canada (Watson, 2020), Turkey (Armağan & Durukal, 2021), a…”
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“…largely stemming from perceived threats to personal and familial health, as well as uncertainties regarding employment and income during the COVID-19 pandemic (Duplaga & Grysztar, 2021; Jannini et al., 2023b; Pacitti et al., 2022; Paredes et al., 2021; Rossi et al., 2023; Servidio et al., 2022).”
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“However, the research undertaken by Duplaga and Grysztar (2021), including people in a wider age group (18–74 years), demonstrated a higher level of future anxiety among women.”
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“Previous studies found that female frontline staff experienced more serve mental fatigue and anxiety (Batra et al., 2020; Teng et al., 2020; Duplaga and Grysztar, 2021).”
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“Previous research suggests that depressive symptoms are important in predicting general and specific future anxieties (Bakioğlu et al., 2021; Duplaga & Grysztar, 2021).”
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“Health literacy refers to a term that is highly relevant for the understanding and application of health knowledge (Duplaga & Grysztar, 2021).”
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“Indeed, studies have shown that negative life events such as the COVID-19 pandemic (Duplaga and Grysztar, 2021) and earthquakes (Kartol et al., 2023) increase future anxiety.”
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Future anxiety and belongingness in young and older adults: An empirical study
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“Previous research has shown that higher health literacy is associated with lower levels of anxiety (25), while low social support is a well-established predictor of depression and anxiety (26, 27).”
COVID-19, Misinformation and Communication Studies: A Systematic Review of the Infodemic
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BİLGİ KAYNAKLARININ COVID-19 KORKUSUNA ETKİSİ
KARAHAN, G., Duyan, V., & Güre, M. D. P. (2022) · Turkish Journal of Applied Social Work · doi:10.54467/trjasw.1099685 · Cited by 1
Future Anxiety and Immune Status in Nursing Students During the Coronavirus Disease-2019 Pandemic
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“Apart from anxiety, other mental health disorders, such as fear, depressive symptoms, and low sleep quality, have been reported during the pandemic (Duplaga & Grysztar, 2021).”
BackgroundFLEXIBLE TO SHIFT OR TRANSFORM: EFFECTS OF COVID-19 ON THE FUTURE ANXIETY OF HOSPITALITY STUDENTS
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مهارات ما وراء الانفعال وعلاقتها التنبؤية بقلق المستقبل المهني لدى طلاب الجامعة
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COVID-19, Misinformation and Communication Studies: A Systematic Review of the Infodemic
Kuş, O., & ÖZTÜRK, İ. D. (2022) · Connectist Istanbul University Journal of Communication Sciences · doi:10.26650/connectist2022-102813 · Cited by 4
Cyberchondria as a By-Product of Extensive Use of Health-Related Information on the Internet
Kobryn, M., & Duplaga, M. (2021) · Jagiellonian University Repository (Jagiellonian University)
Self-citationنمذجة العلاقات السببية بين اليقظة العقلية والتنظيم الإنفعالي وقلق المستقبل لدى طلاب الجامعة
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Perception of the impact of COVID-19 pandemics on cancer patientsPreprint
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Future Health Care and Medical Entrepreneurship in the Age of Pandemic
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العلاقة بين قلق المستقبل والسكينة النفسية لدى الطلاب مصابي حوادث المرور بجامعة الملك خالد
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القلق من المستقبل وعلاقته بفاعلية الذات لدى الجالية الإندونيسية الناطقة باللغة العربية في مصر
سلامة, أ. إ. ع. (2022) · Mağallaẗ Al-Dirāsāt Al-Afrū Asyawīyaẗ · doi:10.21608/aass.2022.340546
THE MODERATION AND MEDIATION MODEL OF HEALTH-RELATED KNOWLEDGE IN ILLNESS ANXIETY AND CYBERCHONDRIA
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Older Adults’ Future Perspectives and Attitudes Amid Uncertainty: Shifts Across 2 Years of COVID-19
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Sociodemographic factors and their predictive role in parents’ future anxiety
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“The period of the pandemic has meant that researchers have been focused on studying FA together with general anxiety, stress or depression, and with the sociodemographic predictors and features related to the course of anxiety about the COVID-19 pandemic (Duplaga & Grysztar, 2021).”
InfluentialLiu, S., & Wang, L. (2025) · Early Intervention in Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/eip.70075
“In contrast, students with low MHL often experience feelings of isolation and helplessness, with higher levels of DAS (Duplaga and Grysztar 2021; Gorczynski et al. 2017).”
GENERATIONAL SHADES OF GREEN: HOW FUTURE ANXIETY SHAPES ENVIRONMENTAL AND FRUGAL CONSUMPTION?
Sevinç, S. B., Kurtuluş, S., & Dirsehan, T. (2025) · Marmara Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi · doi:10.14780/muiibd.1606393
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“Research has shown that 23.4% of frontline workers report symptoms of anxiety, with 7.5% experiencing moderate to severe levels of anxiety (Duplaga and Grysztar, 2021).”
Influential
Metadata
- Authors
- Duplaga, M., & Grysztar, M.
- Affiliations
- Jagiellonian University (PL)
- Corresponding author
- Duplaga, Mariusz
- Venue
- Healthcare
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2021-01-05
- Volume
- 9
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 43
- ISSN
- 2227-9032 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7824811
- OpenAlex
- W3120587867
- Cited by
- 106
- References
- 105
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 22 · 2023: 16 · 2022: 32 · 2021: 17
- FWCI
- 14.83
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Healthcare (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Homo Politicus (Academy of Humanities and Economics in Lodz) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- Uniwersytet Jagielloński Collegium Medicum (N43/DBS/000050)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › General Health Professions › Health Literacy and Information Accessibility
- Social Sciences › Communication › Communication and COVID-19 Impact
- Keywords
- future anxiety, COVID-19 pandemic, health literacy, digital health literacy, perceived health threat, conspiracy beliefs, COVID-19 conspiracy theories, gender differences, occupational status, Polish adults, public health communication, health education, health policy, health care costs
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