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The Association between Future Anxiety, Health Literacy and the Perception of the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Cross-Sectional Study
Open accessAbstract
Increased anxiety related to the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic in society and specific professional groups has been reported by many authors. Most have applied tools enabling assessing the general traits of anxiety. Tools specifically designed for an assessment of anxiety or fear related to COVID-19 have also been developed. However, no study has assessed the future anxiety in relation to the pandemic. This concept was defined by Zaleski in the end of the 20th century as the state of apprehension, fear, worry, and concern regarding unfavourable changes in the more remote personal future. The aim of this study was an analysis to establish the level and the determinants of future anxiety in Polish society related to the COVID-19 pandemic three months after the introduction of the state of epidemic. The analysis reported in the paper is based on the data obtained through a web-based survey carried out on a representative sample of 1002 Polish adults aged 18–74 years. The hierarchical linear regression model was developed for the analysis of the determinants of future anxiety from the responses to a questionnaire consisting of five items. The independent variables selected for inclusion in the model, apart from sociodemographic characteristics, encompassed health literacy (HL) and ehealth literacy (eHL), perceived health threat related to COVID-19 (PHTC19), and a COVID-19-related conspiracy belief score (CCBS) derived from three items asking about the most popular conspiracy theories. The regression model developed in the final step showed that the future anxiety scale score (FASS) was significantly associated with gender, vocational status, HL, PHTC19, and CCBS. The FASS was lower among men than women (regression coefficient (B) (standard error, SE) = −1.28 (0.39), p = 0.001), among entrepreneurs or farmers rather than among employees of the public or private sector (B(SE) = −1.55, p = 0.010), in persons with a higher HL (B(SE) = −0.43 (0.06), p < 0.001). A higher FASS was observed in respondents with higher rather than lower PHTC19 (B(SE) = 1.49 (0.17), p < 0.001) and in those with a higher CCBS (B(SE) = 0.33 (0.07), p < 0.001). The model accounted for 15.2% of the variance of the FASS. In conclusion, the COVID-19 pandemic is not only a cause of increased mental symptoms, but also of increased future anxiety. Health-related measures are significantly associated with the FASS.
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“The COVID-19 pandemic increased anxiety regarding the future [33,34,35].”
From COVID-19 Victimization Experience and College Students’ Mobile Phone Addiction: A Moderated Mediation Effect of Future Anxiety and Mindfulness (2022) · cites this paper as [33]
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ResultValidation and Psychometric Evaluation of the Italian Version of the Fear of COVID-19 Scale
Soraci, P., Ferrari, A., Abbiati, F. A., Del Fante, E., De Pace, R., Urso, A., & Griffiths, M. D. (2022) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-020-00277-1 · Cited by 427
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“In turn, the FAS Score (FASS) was calculated as the sum of individual responses to 5 items included in the DFS.”
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“The COVID-19-related Conspiracy Beliefs Score (CCBS) was the sum of the individual responses to three relevant items asking about believing conspiracy theory given values of 1 to 5, where ‘I decidedly agree’ was assigned the value of 5 to ‘I decidedly do not agree’ a value of 1 [73].”
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BackgroundEmpowering Users to Respond to Misinformation about Covid-19
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“reported that excessive exposure to media focusing of COVID-19 may be associated with increased anxiety [92].”
BackgroundResultAnxious attachment and belief in conspiracy theories
Green, R., & Douglas, K. M. (2018) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2017.12.023 · Cited by 108 · cited 1×
“Green and Douglas observed that there is a significant association between anxious attachment and belief in conspiracy beliefs [56].”
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MethodThe enigma of health literacy and COVID-19 pandemic
Abdel-Latif, M. (2020) · Public Health · doi:10.1016/j.puhe.2020.06.030 · Cited by 102
Ismael, F., Bizário, J. C. S., Battagin, T., Zaramella, B. P., Leal, F. E., Torales, J. C., Ventriglio, A., Marziali, M. E., Martins, S. S., & Castaldelli-Maia, J. M. (2021) · Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2021.110341 · Cited by 98
Parenting and Future Anxiety: The Impact of Having a Child with Developmental Disabilities
Bujnowska, A. M., Rodríguez, C., García, T., Areces, D., & Marsh, N. V. (2019) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph16040668 · Cited by 91 · cited 1×
“Bujnowska reported also that the parents of children with disabilities exhibited greater future anxiety than those having healthy children [64].”
BackgroundSomma, A., Gialdi, G., Krueger, R. F., Markon, K. E., Frau, C., Lovallo, S., & Fossati, A. (2020) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2020.110139 · Cited by 80
Robertson, L. J., Maposa, I., Somaroo, H., & Johnson, O. (2020) · South African Medical Journal · doi:10.7196/samj.2020.v110i10.15022 · Cited by 80 · cited 1×
“Similar findings were confirmed for health care professionals [78] and patients who had suffered from the symptoms of COVID-19 infection [79].”
ResultHardships of the Great Recession and health: Understanding varieties of vulnerability
Kirsch, J. A., & Ryff, C. D. (2016) · Health Psychology Open · doi:10.1177/2055102916652390 · Cited by 69 · cited 1×
“The study, using an adapted version of the economic hardship scale, revealed that only 15% of participants reported no or low economic anxiety [31].”
MethodDeterminants and Consequences of Limited Health Literacy in Polish Society
Duplaga, M. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17020642 · Cited by 68 · cited 1×
“The HL score was calculated using the method recommended by the European Health Literacy Survey project team [71] and has been applied in subsequent Polish studies [38].”
MethodSelf-citationLiu, J. C., & Tong, E. M. W. (2020) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/22142 · Cited by 68
Seng, J. J. B., Yeam, C. T., Huang, C. W., Tan, N. C., & Low, L. L. (2023) · Singapore Medical Journal · doi:10.4103/singaporemedj.smj-2021-026 · Cited by 68
Stickley, A., Matsubayashi, T., Sueki, H., & Ueda, M. (2020) · Public Health · doi:10.1016/j.puhe.2020.09.017 · Cited by 63
Seng, J. J. B., Yeam, C., Huang, W., et al. (2020) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2020.05.07.20094227 · Cited by 62 · cited 1×
“However, researchers had frequently assessed people’s knowledge about infections, the resulting worries and the use of preventive measures [88].”
BackgroundRiiser, K., Helseth, S., Haraldstad, K., et al. (2020) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2020.07.08.20148916 · Cited by 61
Paz, C., Mascialino, G., Adana-Díaz, L., Rodríguez-Lorenzana, A., Simbaña-Rivera, K., Gómez-Barreno, L., Troya, M., Paez, M. I., Cárdenas, J., Gerstner, R. M., et al. (2020) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0240008 · Cited by 60 · cited 1×
“In Ecuador in patients remaining under surveillance because of COVID-19, the degree of anxiety symptoms measured with GAD-7 was significantly associated with gender and their behaviours during the period of confinement [87].”
BackgroundFarias, J. E. M., & Pilati, R. (2021) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-01416-0 · Cited by 56
Lee, O. E., Kim, D.-H., & Beum, K. A. (2020) · Educational Gerontology · doi:10.1080/03601277.2020.1790162 · Cited by 48 · cited 1×
“They did not find a statistically significant relationship between eHL and the level of anxiety, neither among older persons from the USA nor from South Korea [94].”
BackgroundThe influence of health literacy on the timely diagnosis of symptomatic cancer: A systematic review
Humphrys, E., Burt, J., Rubin, G. P., Emery, J. D., & Walter, F. M. (2018) · European Journal of Cancer Care · doi:10.1111/ecc.12920 · Cited by 47
Duplaga, M., Sobecka, K., & Wójcik, S. (2019) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph16173216 · Cited by 46 · cited 4×
“The eHL score was determined in line with the instructions given by the authors of the eHealth Literacy Scale (eHEALS) [74].”
MethodInfluentialSelf-citationHassannia, L., Taghizadeh, F., Moosazadeh, M., Zarghami, M., Taghizadeh, H., Dooki, A. F., Fathi, M., Navaei, R., & Hedayatizadeh-Omran, A. (2020) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2020.05.05.20089292 · Cited by 46
Effects of COVID-19 on Anxiety, Depression and Other Mental Health Issues: A worldwide scope review.Preprint
Machado, D. B., Alves, F. J. O., Teixeira, C. S. S., Rocha, A. S., Castro-de-Araujo, L. F., Singh, A., & Barreto, M. L. (2020) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-58186/v1 · Cited by 44
Neill, R. D., Blair, C., Best, P., McGlinchey, E., & Armour, C. (2021) · Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1007/s10389-021-01506-0 · Cited by 42
The psychiatric effects of COVID-19 thus far: a review of the current literature
Wright, K., Sarangi, A., & Ibrahim, Y. (2020) · The Southwest Respiratory and Critical Care Chronicles · doi:10.12746/swrccc.v8i35.727 · Cited by 37
(2020) · Linguistic and Philosophical Investigations · doi:10.22381/lpi1920207 · Cited by 26
Zaben, K. J., & Khalil, A. A. (2019) · Open Journal of Nursing · doi:10.4236/ojn.2019.94035 · Cited by 23
Constantinou, M., Kagialis, A., & Karekla, M. (2020) · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-33972/v1 · Cited by 20
Neill, R. D., Blair, C., Best, P., McGlinchey, E., & Armour, C. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/5d9fc · Cited by 15
Ismael, F., Bizário, J. C. S., Battagin, T., et al. (2020) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2020.08.25.20182113 · Cited by 12 · cited 1×
“Similar findings were confirmed for health care professionals [78] and patients who had suffered from the symptoms of COVID-19 infection [79].”
ResultDuplaga, M. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17155459 · Cited by 11 · cited 3×
“The order of presentation of specific items in the online questionnaire was as follows: the HLS-EU-Q16, the Pl-eHEALS, questions asking about perceptions about the COVID-19 pandemic, the DFS and a set of items asking about belief in conspiracy theories.”
Self-citationOverview of Anxiety and the Anxiety Disorders
Vanin, J. R. (2008) · Humana Press eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-59745-263-2_1 · Cited by 10 · cited 2×
“The importance of interactions between the genetic background and the environment is supported by the individual differences in coping with stress and the occurrence of anxiety disorders [6].”
BackgroundVanin, J. R., Helsley, J. D., & Morgan, D. M. (2008) · Humana Press eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-59745-263-2 · Cited by 7
Nourisaeid, A., Shabahang, R., Sheykhangafshe, F. B., Saeedi, M., & Mousavi, M. (2020) · Cited by 4
Risk factors for distress during online health information seeking behavior in parents
Kubb, C., & Foran, H. M. (2020) · European Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1093/eurpub/ckaa165.907 · Cited by 1 · cited 1×
“In agreement with the findings described in our paper, Kubb & Foran did not observe a meaningful contribution of eHL to a parent’s change of stress level when searching the web for current somatic health issues related to their own or their children’s symptoms [97].”
ResultFarias, J. E. M., & Pilati, R. (2020) · Cited by 1
Research works printed but not linked: 8
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- Stickley, A., Matsubayashi, T., Sueki, H., Ueda, M., and Faculty, M.U. (2020). COVID-19 preventive behaviors among people with anxiety and depression: Findings from Japan. medRxiv. · DOI
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- Chen, X., Zhang, S.X., Jahanshahi, A.A., Alvarez-Risco, A., Dai, H., Li, J., and Ibarra, V.G. (2020). Belief in Conspiracy Theory about COVID-19 Predicts Mental Health and Well-being-A Study of Healthcare Staff in Ecuador. medRxiv. · DOI
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Antecedents and consequences of COVID-19 conspiracy beliefs: A systematic review
van Mulukom, V., Pummerer, L., Alper, S., Bai, H., Čavojová, V., Farias, J. E. M., Kay, C. S., Lazarević, L. B., Lobato, E. J. C., Marinthe, G., et al. (2022) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2022.114912 · Cited by 437
“…psychological well-being interact and strengthen each other (Douglas et al., 2017), and believing COVID-19 conspiracy theories may lead to lower psychological well-being in the long term, for example through associations of feelings of powerlessness and uncertainty (Duplaga and Grysztar, 2021).”
Antecedents and consequences of COVID-19 conspiracy beliefs: a systematic reviewPreprint
van Mulukom, V., Pummerer, L., Alper, S., Bai, H., Čavojová, V., Farias, J. E. M., Kay, C. S., Lazarević, L. B., Lobato, E. J. C., Marinthe, G., et al. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/u8yah · Cited by 71
Contemporary trends in psychological research on conspiracy beliefs. A systematic review
Pilch, I., Turska–Kawa, A., Wardawy-Dudziak, P., Olszanecka-Marmola, A., & Smołkowska-Jędo, W. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1075779 · Cited by 76
“, 2021), future anxiety (Duplaga and Grysztar, 2021), and also lower wellbeing (Spasovski and Kenig, 2020; van Prooijen et al.”
BackgroundHermans, L., den Broucke, S. V., Gisle, L., Demarest, S. S., & Charafeddine, R. (2021) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-021-11437-w · Cited by 72
“[23] showed that higher health literacy was associated with lower levels of future anxiety during the COVID-19 pandemic.”
BackgroundFrings, D., Sykes, S., Ojo, A., Rowlands, G., Trasolini, A., Dadaczynski, K., Okan, O., & Wills, J. (2022) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-022-13087-y · Cited by 49
“situations [24, 25], emerging literature from the pandemic context is consistent showing that those who are less pessimistic and reporting less fear about the future feel more psychologically prepared in pandemic management [26, 27].”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Duplaga, M., & Grysztar, M.
- Affiliations
- Jagiellonian University (PL)
- Corresponding author
- Duplaga, Mariusz
- Venue
- Healthcare
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2021-01-05
- Volume
- 9
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 43
- ISSN
- 2227-9032 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7824811
- OpenAlex
- W3120587867
- Cited by
- 106
- References
- 105
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 22 · 2023: 16 · 2022: 32 · 2021: 17
- FWCI
- 14.83
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Healthcare (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Homo Politicus (Academy of Humanities and Economics in Lodz) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- Uniwersytet Jagielloński Collegium Medicum (N43/DBS/000050)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › General Health Professions › Health Literacy and Information Accessibility
- Social Sciences › Communication › Communication and COVID-19 Impact
- Keywords
- future anxiety, COVID-19 pandemic, health literacy, digital health literacy, perceived health threat, conspiracy beliefs, COVID-19 conspiracy theories, gender differences, occupational status, Polish adults, public health communication, health education, health policy, health care costs
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