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Key Risk Factors Affecting Farmers’ Mental Health: A Systematic Review
Open accessAbstract
Recently, concern has increased globally over farmers’ mental health issues. We present a systematic review of the outcomes, locations, study designs, and methods of current studies on farmers’ mental health. In particular, this review aims to fill an important gap in understanding of the potential key risk factors affecting farmers’ mental health around the world. 167 articles on farmer mental health were included in a final systematic review using a standardized electronic literature search strategy and PRISMA guidelines. The four most-cited influences on farmers’ mental health in the reviewed literature respectively were pesticide exposure, financial difficulties, climate variabilities/drought, and poor physical health/past injuries. The majority of studies were from developed countries, most specifically from the United States, Australia, and the United Kingdom. Comparative studies on the mental health of farmers and other occupational workers showed mixed results, with a larger portion identifying that psychological health disturbances were more common in farmers and farm-workers. Knowledge of farmer psychological disorder risk factors and its impacts are essential for reducing the burden of mental illness. Further research will be required on climate change impacts, developing country farmers’ mental health, and information on how to reduce help-seeking barriers amongst farmers.
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“Low-threshold and remotely delivered preventive interventions, like telephone coaching, are warranted for farmers who experience multiple risk factors for depression, live in underserved areas, and show low help-seeking behavior.”
From How to promote usage of telehealth interventions for farmers' mental health? A qualitative study on supporting and hindering aspects for acceptance and satisfaction with a personalized telephone coaching for depression prevention (2023) · cites this paper as Daghagh Yazd et al., 2019
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“Recent systematic reviews indicate that farmers are at particular risk of mental health disorders [1, 2].”
From Improving the mental health of farmers: what types of remote support are acceptable, feasible, and improve outcomes? A feasibility RCT (2024) · cites this paper as [1]
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‘It's a lonely old world’: Developing a multidimensional understanding of loneliness in farming
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“Stress in farming (both physical and psychological) is a strong predictor of farm injury and resulting safety behaviours (Furey et al. 2016), and is also associated with financial problems as both an outcome and a source of stress (Yazd, Wheeler, and Zuo 2019).”
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Clayton, S., & Crandon, T. (2024) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-081423-025932 · Cited by 52
Socioeconomic threats are more salient to farmers than environmental threats
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The Impact of COVID-19 on Farmers’ Mental Health: A Case Study of the UK
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“Producers have higher levels of psychological distress (Yazd et al., 2019) and a higher suicide rate than the general population (Peterson et al.”
BackgroundQuality of Work Life (QoWL) and Perceived Workplace Commitment among Seasonal Farmers in Nigeria
Moda, H. M., Nwadike, C., Danjin, M., Fatoye, F., Mbada, C. E., Smail, L., & Doka, P. J. S. (2021) · Agriculture · doi:10.3390/agriculture11020103 · Cited by 22
“In addition to this, other self-reported factors such as forgetfulness, sleep disturbances, mental fatigue, stress and anxiety were likely to impact farm workers as a result of working longer hours [29,33,34].”
BackgroundGender Differences in Depressive Symptoms and Work Environment Factors among Dairy Farmers in Japan
Sato, M., Kato, H., Noguchi, M., Ono, H., & Kobayashi, K. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17072569 · Cited by 24
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“No better or worse off”: Mycoplasma bovis, farmers and bureaucracy
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Farmer’s mental health and well-being: Qualitative findings on protective factors
Saju, S., Reddy, S. K., Bijjal, S. S., & Annapally, S. R. (2024) · Journal of Neurosciences in Rural Practice · doi:10.25259/jnrp_403_2023 · Cited by 24
“[34] While the previous studies suggest that climate variables and pesticide exposure can pose risks to well-being, [20] the participants in the present study emphasized the positive impact of the rural environment and lifestyle on their well-being.”
Psychological and Physical Health of Organic and Conventional Farmers: A Review
David, L., Dambrun, M., Harrington, R., Streith, M., & Michaud, A. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su132011384 · Cited by 20
Hoisington, A. J., Stearns‐Yoder, K. A., Kovacs, E. J., Postolache, T. T., & Brenner, L. A. (2024) · Current Environmental Health Reports · doi:10.1007/s40572-024-00437-8 · Cited by 22
“Landscape of Stress” for Sheep Owners in the Swedish Wolf Region
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The Health and Well-Being of Women in Farming: A Systematic Scoping Review
Wheeler, R., & Nye, C. (2024) · Journal of Agromedicine · doi:10.1080/1059924x.2024.2407385 · Cited by 24
“…in farming, such as loneliness, stress, government policy and regulations, financial problems, and weather uncertainty are similar across genders, 21,22 women face additional burdens – many associated with socially constructed gender norms – which are less likely to affect men within the social…”
Kanamori, M., Hanazato, M., Kondo, K., Stickley, A., & Kondo, N. (2021) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-021-10469-6 · Cited by 20
“The structural changes that are occurring in the agricultural sector are linked to a number of risk factors for poor mental health among farmers including an increasing economic burden, geographical and social isolation, as well as difficulty in obtaining help [1, 3, 8, 9].”
BackgroundFarmer Suicide in Wisconsin: A Qualitative Analysis
Kohlbeck, S., Schramm, A., deRoon‐Cassini, T., Hargarten, S., & Quinn, K. (2022) · The Journal of Rural Health · doi:10.1111/jrh.12622 · Cited by 18
Navigating Farm Stress: Traumatic and Resilient Dimensions of the Black Agrarian Frame
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Bazo‐Alvarez, J. C., Bazalar-Palacios, J., Palacios, J. D. R. B., & Flores, E. C. (2022) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2022-064396 · Cited by 24
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“If more rural dwellers are farmers and food insecurity hampers their ability to provide for their families financially, this could be a potential source of stress that is less likely to be experienced by urban dwellers [96, 97].”
BackgroundWhitaker, S. H. (2024) · Agriculture and Human Values · doi:10.1007/s10460-024-10586-z · Cited by 21
“Government policies and regulations are one of the stressors that affect farmer well-being (Bin et al. 2008; Kallion-iemi et al. 2011, 2016; Simkin et al. 1998; Logstein 2016; Daghagh Yazd et al. 2019).”
InfluentialNye, C., Wheeler, R., Rose, D. C., Becot, F., Holton, M., Hočevar, D. K., Knook, J., Kyle, S. N., Partalidou, M., Riley, M., et al. (2024) · Journal of Rural Studies · doi:10.1016/j.jrurstud.2024.103506 · Cited by 22
Braun, L., Titzler, I., Terhorst, Y., Freund, J., Thielecke, J., Ebert, D. D., & Baumeister, H. (2021) · Internet Interventions · doi:10.1016/j.invent.2021.100455 · Cited by 20
Economic Stress, Family Distress, and Work-Family Conflict among Farm Couples
Sprung, J. M. (2021) · Journal of Agromedicine · doi:10.1080/1059924x.2021.1944417 · Cited by 17
“Therefore, although economic stress is likely to impact the wellbeing of workers in all vocations, it seems especially influential to farmers’ wellbeing due to the amplified financial uncertainty associated with the occupation.(11) Eberhardt and Pooyan outline two forms of economic stress farmers face.”
BackgroundResultDenis-Robichaud, J., Rousseau, M., Denicourt, M., Robichaud, M. V., Lamothe, A.-M., & DesCôteaux, L. (2022) · Journal of Dairy Science · doi:10.3168/jds.2022-21986 · Cited by 17
Mental Health in Farming Communities
Garrett-Wright, D., Malin, C., & Jones, M. S. (2023) · Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services · doi:10.3928/02793695-20230424-02 · Cited by 17
Vafeiadou, A., Banissy, M. J., Banissy, J. F. M., Higgins, J. P. T., & Howard, G. (2023) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e21457 · Cited by 19
“A more recent systematic review reported additional findings about the influence of Australian droughts on farmers [52].”
BackgroundInfluentialFamily farms' resilience under the COVID-19 crisis: Challenges and opportunities with agritourism
Brune, S., Vilá, O., & Knollenberg, W. (2023) · Land Use Policy · doi:10.1016/j.landusepol.2023.106902 · Cited by 17
Becot, F., Inwood, S. M., & Budge, H. (2024) · Journal of Agromedicine · doi:10.1080/1059924x.2024.2427800 · Cited by 16
“4,32 As much as the triple burden of farm women has long been documented, our understanding of how farm women navigate the day-to-day of the triple burden and the intersection with women’s mental health has received little attention.”
InfluentialBrown, K., Batterham, P. J., Schirmer, J., & Upton, P. (2022) · Society & Natural Resources · doi:10.1080/08941920.2022.2058133 · Cited by 16
Shinde, R., Hackula, A., Marycz, M., Bose, A., O’Shea, R., Barth, S., Murphy, J. D., & Wall, D. M. (2025) · Trends in biotechnology · doi:10.1016/j.tibtech.2025.01.005 · Cited by 15
Health implications of the rapid rise of data centers in Virginia: an exploratory assessment
Gour, N., Ortiz, L., & Maibach, E. (2026) · Frontiers in Climate · doi:10.3389/fclim.2026.1648912 · Cited by 20
Well-being at work and Finnish dairy farmers─from job demands and loneliness towards burnout
Kallioniemi, M., Kaseva, J., Kymäläinen, H., & Hakanen, J. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.976456 · Cited by 21
Yearby, R., Lewis, C. F., & Gibson, C. (2023) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2022.307166 · Cited by 15
Rose, D. C., Budge, H., Carolan, M., Hall, J., Hammersley, C., Knook, J., Lobley, M., Nye, C., O'Reilly, A., Shortland, F., et al. (2023) · Sociologia Ruralis · doi:10.1111/soru.12425 · Cited by 15
On Feirm Ground, Supporting Farmer Mental Health
Hammersley, C., Richardson, N., Meredith, D., McNamara, J. G., Carroll, P., & Jenkins, P. (2024) · The Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension · doi:10.1080/1389224x.2024.2339801 · Cited by 15
Malone, S. M., Firnhaber, J., O’Hagan, A. D., O’Keeffe, S., McNamara, J. G., & O’Connor, S. (2024) · Journal of Rural Studies · doi:10.1016/j.jrurstud.2024.103508 · Cited by 18
Petit, P., Gandon, G., Dubuc, M., Vuillerme, N., & Bonneterre, V. (2023) · The Lancet Regional Health - Europe · doi:10.1016/j.lanepe.2023.100674 · Cited by 15
“1,3 17 None of these four studies investigated the risk of depression related to speci fi c agricultural activities.”
InfluentialWeatherly, C., & Doherty, F. C. (2025) · Journal of Rural Studies · doi:10.1016/j.jrurstud.2025.103573 · Cited by 14
A Perennial Green Revolution to address 21st‐century food insecurity and malnutrition
Paul, J., Lutsiv, T., & Thompson, H. J. (2024) · Food and Energy Security · doi:10.1002/fes3.568 · Cited by 14
Alicandro, G., Grande, E., Sebastiani, G., Violante, F. S., Vecchia, C. L., & Frova, L. (2020) · Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1136/oemed-2020-106743 · Cited by 14
Meierová, T., & Chvátalová, V. (2022) · Journal of Rural Studies · doi:10.1016/j.jrurstud.2022.04.013 · Cited by 16
Becot, F., Bendixsen, C. G., Barnes, K. L., & Rudolphi, J. M. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18105218 · Cited by 14
Vaillant, J., Kalra, N., Cuneo, A. G., & Rouanet, L. M. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0284088 · Cited by 13
“This is in line with much of the literature in the general population, where farm-based employment is associated with a stronger likelihood of mental disorders [11].”
BackgroundResultInfluentialGlobal burden and trends of self-harm from 1990 to 2021, with predictions to 2050
Xie, L., Tang, L., Liu, Y., Dong, Z., & Zhang, X. (2025) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2025.1571579 · Cited by 15
Feng, D., Wang, Q., Huang, S., Lang, X., Ding, F., & Wang, W. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph191912058 · Cited by 13
Liang, Y., Casteel, C. H., Janssen, B., Wang, K., & Rohlman, D. S. (2022) · Journal of Agromedicine · doi:10.1080/1059924x.2022.2134243 · Cited by 13
The Women Farmer Stress Inventory: Examining women farmer stress in the United States Corn Belt
Nichols, C. E., & Davis, J. W. (2023) · The Journal of Rural Health · doi:10.1111/jrh.12808 · Cited by 13
Sleep issues and burnout in Irish farmers: A cross sectional survey
O’Connor, S., O’Hagan, A. D., Malone, S. M., O’Shaughnessy, B. R., McNamara, J. G., & Firnhaber, J. (2023) · Safety Science · doi:10.1016/j.ssci.2023.106377 · Cited by 13
Petit, P., Gondard, E., Gandon, G., Moreaud, O., Sauvée, M., & Bonneterre, V. (2024) · European Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s10654-023-01079-0 · Cited by 18
Song, J., Cai, Y., Yahong, W., & Khan, S. U. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph192316048 · Cited by 14
“findings obtained here are compatible with the work of Daghagh Yazd, Wheeler [56], and Danso-Abbeam, Ehiakpor [57].”
ResultGerdes, M. E., Cruz‐Cano, R., Solaiman, S., Ammons, S., Allard, S. M., Sapkota, A. R., Micallef, S. A., & Goldstein, R. E. R. (2021) · Environmental Research · doi:10.1016/j.envres.2021.112480 · Cited by 13
Metadata
- Authors
- Daghagh Yazd, S., Wheeler, S. A., & Zuo, A.
- Affiliations
- Centre for Global Food and Resources, Faculty of Professions, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia
- The University of Adelaide (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Wheeler, Sarah Ann
- Venue
- International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2019-12-02
- Volume
- 16
- Issue
- 23
- Pages
- 4849
- ISSN
- 1660-4601 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC6926562
- OpenAlex
- W2990842690
- Cited by
- 393
- References
- 186
- Citations by year
- 2026: 58 · 2025: 80 · 2024: 81 · 2023: 63 · 2022: 51 · 2021: 40 · 2020: 20
- FWCI
- 2.47
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- dx.doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Adelaide Research & Scholarship (AR&S) (University of Adelaide) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- Australian Research Council (FT140100773)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Agriculture and Farm Safety
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
- Keywords
- farmer mental health, risk factors, pesticide exposure, financial hardship, climate variability, drought, physical health, occupational injuries, farm workers, mental illness, help-seeking barriers, climate change impacts
- MeSH terms
- Farmers, Adult, Agriculture, Mental Disorders, Female, Health Status, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Risk Factors, Stress, Psychological
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