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Key Risk Factors Affecting Farmers’ Mental Health: A Systematic Review
Open accessAbstract
Recently, concern has increased globally over farmers’ mental health issues. We present a systematic review of the outcomes, locations, study designs, and methods of current studies on farmers’ mental health. In particular, this review aims to fill an important gap in understanding of the potential key risk factors affecting farmers’ mental health around the world. 167 articles on farmer mental health were included in a final systematic review using a standardized electronic literature search strategy and PRISMA guidelines. The four most-cited influences on farmers’ mental health in the reviewed literature respectively were pesticide exposure, financial difficulties, climate variabilities/drought, and poor physical health/past injuries. The majority of studies were from developed countries, most specifically from the United States, Australia, and the United Kingdom. Comparative studies on the mental health of farmers and other occupational workers showed mixed results, with a larger portion identifying that psychological health disturbances were more common in farmers and farm-workers. Knowledge of farmer psychological disorder risk factors and its impacts are essential for reducing the burden of mental illness. Further research will be required on climate change impacts, developing country farmers’ mental health, and information on how to reduce help-seeking barriers amongst farmers.
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“Low-threshold and remotely delivered preventive interventions, like telephone coaching, are warranted for farmers who experience multiple risk factors for depression, live in underserved areas, and show low help-seeking behavior.”
From How to promote usage of telehealth interventions for farmers' mental health? A qualitative study on supporting and hindering aspects for acceptance and satisfaction with a personalized telephone coaching for depression prevention (2023) · cites this paper as Daghagh Yazd et al., 2019
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“Recent systematic reviews indicate that farmers are at particular risk of mental health disorders [1, 2].”
From Improving the mental health of farmers: what types of remote support are acceptable, feasible, and improve outcomes? A feasibility RCT (2024) · cites this paper as [1]
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Liang, Y., Wang, K., Janssen, B., Casteel, C. H., Nonnenmann, M. W., & Rohlman, D. S. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18073657 · Cited by 10
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“The neurocognitive tests/domains were selected based on the previous reports on neuropsychological outcomes in pesticide exposed farmers (13, 14).”
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“…separation (Fraser et al., 2005), working with family members (Finnigan, 2019), long work hours and sleep deprivation (LaBrash et al., 2008), unpredictability of the weather and financial strain (Wilton Consulting Group, 2020), and the solitary nature of agricultural production (Yazd et al., 2019).”
BackgroundThe Intersection of Gender and Occupational Roles in Agriculture
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Mental health disorders among Thai farmers: occupational and non-occupational stressors
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“Key risk factors of farmer mental health have been limited scrutinized in previous studies; less than 5% have examined the association between mental health and risk factors, including weather conditions, governmental policies, problem with machinery, and working with family (Yazd et al. 2019).”
BackgroundPerceived personal control and subjective well-being among farmers
Brown, P. H., Milfont, T. L., Norriss, H., & Wesselbaum, D. (2024) · Journal of Rural Studies · doi:10.1016/j.jrurstud.2024.103487 · Cited by 5
Using a Neural Network Analysis to Assess Stressors in the Farming Community
Beseler, C. L., & Stallones, L. F. (2020) · Safety · doi:10.3390/safety6020021 · Cited by 6
“Depressive and anxiety disorders can result from exposure to chronic, unpredictable environmental stress [9–13]; see [14] for a recent review on stressors and mental health in farmers.”
BackgroundAutopercepción del Nivel de vida en los asociados a gremios agrícolas en Tungurahua, Ecuador
Carvajal, C. F. G., Atupaña, J. M. I., Guevara, M. D. G., & Velástegui, C. A. G. (2022) · Religación · doi:10.46652/rgn.v7i34.983 · Cited by 5
“Death by a Thousand Cuts”: Agriculture Producer Resiliency in the Western United States
Freeman, B., Grocke-Dewey, M., Chichester, L., Breeding, K. A., Stallones, L. F., & Minter, M. L. (2023) · Journal of Agromedicine · doi:10.1080/1059924x.2023.2280075 · Cited by 7
Lamont, K., van Woerden, H. C., King, E., Wendelboe-Nelson, C., Humphry, R. W., Stark, C., Williams, C., & Maxwell, M. (2024) · Discover Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s44192-023-00054-1 · Cited by 5
Morais, A., Guiné, R. P. F., Costa, C. A., & Magalhães, C. C. Á. (2025) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare13091027 · Cited by 4
“…various health hazards, which are becoming more prevalent due to various agricultural, technological, industrial, and socio-economic factors, such as prolonged exposure to pesticides and other chemicals, physically demanding work and long work days, and exposure to various weather conditions [1,5].”
Humer, E. C., Gächter, A., Pieh, C., Zeldovich, M., & Neubauer, V. (2025) · Archives of Suicide Research · doi:10.1080/13811118.2025.2552954 · Cited by 5
“These findings align with global evidence linking acute environmental stressors to elevated mental health risks (Berry et al., 2010; Daghagh Yazd et al., 2019).”
InfluentialMental health among farmers in Germany: a scoping review
Heming, M., Scheepers, L., Schmidt-Stiedenroth, K., & Angerer, P. (2025) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2025.1701468 · Cited by 4
Young Farmers and Mental Health: A Systematic Scoping Review
Hay, A., Knook, J., Stanley‐Clarke, N., & Winder, L. (2026) · Journal of Agromedicine · doi:10.1080/1059924x.2026.2615778 · Cited by 4
Ambient Temperature Effects on Hospitalization Risk Among Farmers
Tran, N. Q. L., Vy, N. T. T., Chu, C. M.-Y., Phung, H. N., Nghiem, S. H., & Phung, D. T. (2024) · Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1097/jom.0000000000003048 · Cited by 4
Scheyett, A., Brown, V., & Weatherly, C. (2025) · OBM Integrative and Complementary Medicine · doi:10.21926/obm.icm.2501005 · Cited by 4
Clercq, D. D., Xu, L., de Ruiter, M., den Homberg, M. J. C. V., van der Velde, M., Hall, J. W., Jägermeyer, J., & Mahdi, A. (2025) · International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction · doi:10.1016/j.ijdrr.2025.105249 · Cited by 5
List of occupational diseases among farmers in Korea: a literature review
Song, H. S., Yoo, S., Park, W.-J., Cho, S., Park, K., Sung, J. H., Park, S., Yoon, S.-Y., Kim, K., Choi, D.-P., et al. (2025) · Annals of Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.35371/aoem.2025.37.e2 · Cited by 4
Chilwalo, N. B., Rantho, K. M., & Matlakala, F. K. (2025) · Natural Hazards · doi:10.1007/s11069-025-07243-x · Cited by 4
“Daghagh Yazd et al. (2019) established that due to unpredictable climate conditions, farmers even in developed countries were prone to mental health challenges.”
InfluentialObiri-Yeboah, S., Bekoe, A. A., & Doe, E. K. (2025) · Frontiers in Human Dynamics · doi:10.3389/fhumd.2025.1543793 · Cited by 7
Support needs, received support and mental well-being in Austrian farmers: a mixed-methods approach
Humer, E. C., Gächter, A., Pieh, C., & Neubauer, V. (2025) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2025.1600624 · Cited by 5
Swendener, A. (2021) · Community Work & Family · doi:10.1080/13668803.2020.1868408 · Cited by 5
Sangber-Dery, G.-M., Tham-Agyekum, E. K., Ankuyi, F., Bakang, J.-E. A., Lartey, N. N. L., Okorley, E. L., Jones, E. O., & Boansi, D. (2023) · African Journal of Science Technology Innovation and Development · doi:10.1080/20421338.2023.2247754 · Cited by 4
“A study conducted by Daghagh Yazd, Wheeler, and Zuo (2019) revealed that farm injuries impact the mental health of farmers which leads to stress, anxiety, and depression and subsequently leads to a decrease in productivity.”
BackgroundMental Health Among LGBTQ+ Farmers in the United States
Cuthbertson, C. A., Rivas‐Koehl, D., Codamon, A., Billington, A., & Rivas‐Koehl, M. (2024) · Journal of Agromedicine · doi:10.1080/1059924x.2024.2368185 · Cited by 4
Riethmuller, M. L., Newnham, E. A., Dzidic, P. L., & McEvoy, P. M. (2024) · Health Promotion International · doi:10.1093/heapro/daae069 · Cited by 4
Riethmuller, M. L., Newnham, E. A., & McEvoy, P. M. (2024) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.117381 · Cited by 4
Ammann, P., Jeong, A., Lovison, G., Doetzer, J., Fuhrimann, S., Imboden, M., Ingold, K. M., Winkler, M. S., & Probst-Hensch, N. M. (2025) · Swiss Medical Weekly · doi:10.57187/s.4135 · Cited by 4
Niles, M. T., & Brown, P. H. (2025) · Journal of Rural Studies · doi:10.1016/j.jrurstud.2025.103795 · Cited by 4
Endophytic Seed Bacteria: A Relevant Pool of Microorganisms with the Ability to Promote Plant Growth
L'Hoir, M., Nasslahsen, B., Ferhout, H., Prin, Y., Smouni, A., Walker, V., & Duponnois, R. (2022) · Microorganisms for sustainability · doi:10.1007/978-981-16-4843-4_3 · Cited by 4
Thompson, O. A., Imoize, A. L., & Amos, T. T. (2023) · Highlights of Sustainability · doi:10.54175/hsustain2010004 · Cited by 4
Factors related to depressive symptoms in Korean self-employed workers
Kim, H., Park, J., Kim, A. R., & Kim, Y. (2021) · Annals of Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.35371/aoem.2021.33.e20 · Cited by 4
Agarwal, S., Gupta, S., Singh, V., Sutar, R. F., & Nair, D. (2022) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2022.06.09.22275910 · Cited by 5
Dry Aggression: The Impact of Drought on Violent Crime Trends in California Counties
Cohen, N. D. (2025) · American Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1007/s12103-025-09793-z · Cited by 3
“Additionally, alternative fields have also investigated the impact of drought, such as psychology (e.g., Daghagh Yazd et al., 2019; Stain et al., 2011), migration (e.g., Baez et al., 2017; Hermans & McLeman, 2021), corruption (Wenzel, 2021), public health (e.g., Alpino et al., 2016; Stanke et al.,…”
Thielecke, J., Titzler, I., Braun, L., Ebert, D. D., Freund, J., Baumeister, H., Berking, M., & Buntrock, C. (2025) · Occupational Health Science · doi:10.1007/s41542-024-00216-9 · Cited by 3
“This might be due to an accumulation of multiple stressors in their work environment, including high workload, family involvement, unpredictability, additional off-farm jobs, poor physical health, previous injury, and agricultural policies (Daghagh Yazd et al., 2019; Onwuameze et al., 2013).”
Between the Farm and Family: A Cross-Sectional Survey on Work–Family Conflict in Farmers in Ireland
O’Connor, S., O’Hagan, A. D., Casey, H., O’Connor, A., Creegan, M., Stapleton, A., McHugh, L., Russell, T., & O’Keeffe, S. (2025) · Agriculture · doi:10.3390/agriculture15151587 · Cited by 4
“At Some Point, You Just Run Out of Road”: Farmers' Concerns About the Future of Agriculture
Hopkins, N., Weatherly, C., Reece, C., & Proctor, C. (2025) · Community Science · doi:10.1029/2025csj000140 · Cited by 3
“…challenges, work‐life imbalance, physical health and safety risks, land loss to development, a perceived disconnect from non‐ farmers, and issues related to animal health and well‐being (Braun, 2019; Daghagh Yazd et al., 2019; Hagen et al., 2019; Kearney et al., 2014; Proctor & Hopkins, 2023).”
Influential
Metadata
- Authors
- Daghagh Yazd, S., Wheeler, S. A., & Zuo, A.
- Affiliations
- Centre for Global Food and Resources, Faculty of Professions, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia
- The University of Adelaide (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Wheeler, Sarah Ann
- Venue
- International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2019-12-02
- Volume
- 16
- Issue
- 23
- Pages
- 4849
- ISSN
- 1660-4601 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC6926562
- OpenAlex
- W2990842690
- Cited by
- 393
- References
- 186
- Citations by year
- 2026: 58 · 2025: 80 · 2024: 81 · 2023: 63 · 2022: 51 · 2021: 40 · 2020: 20
- FWCI
- 2.47
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- dx.doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Adelaide Research & Scholarship (AR&S) (University of Adelaide) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- Australian Research Council (FT140100773)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Agriculture and Farm Safety
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
- Keywords
- farmer mental health, risk factors, pesticide exposure, financial hardship, climate variability, drought, physical health, occupational injuries, farm workers, mental illness, help-seeking barriers, climate change impacts
- MeSH terms
- Farmers, Adult, Agriculture, Mental Disorders, Female, Health Status, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Risk Factors, Stress, Psychological
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