The DOI matches its Crossref record; 53 of the 54 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 44 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
The Conceptual and Methodological Mayhem of “Screen Time”
Open accessPublished version of a preprint
Abstract
Debates concerning the impacts of screen time are widespread. Existing research presents mixed findings, and lacks longitudinal evidence for any causal or long-term effects. We present a critical account of the current shortcomings of the screen time literature. These include poor conceptualisation, the use of non-standardised measures that are predominantly self-report, and issues with measuring screen time over time and context. Based on these issues, we make a series of recommendations as a basis for furthering academic and public debate. These include drawing on a user-focused approach in order to seek the various affordances gained from “screen use”. Within this, we can better understand the way in which these vary across time and context, and make distinction between objective measures of “screen time” compared to those more subjective experiences of uses or affordances, and the differential impacts these may bring.
Overview
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This critical review argues that “screen time” research suffers from poor conceptualization, non-standardized self-report measures, and context/time measurement problems, producing mixed and weak evidence. It recommends retiring “screen time” and adopting user-focused, affordance-based “screen use” measures, including objective data and control groups where feasible.
Key findings
- Definitions of screen time vary widely; the WHO definition focuses on sedentary screen time and excludes active screen-based games such as exergaming, while the field often treats screen time as a unidimensional construct.
- Self-report estimates are inaccurate: Ernala et al. found participants were most accurate—only 34%—when reporting number of Facebook visits per day, but very inaccurate for “time,” “minutes,” or “hours” spent on Facebook; smartphone users tend to underestimate use, and Facebook users overreport time but underreport visits.
- Evidence for causal or long-term effects is weak: reviews and meta-analyses report mixed findings, and longitudinal studies observe either no or very small effects of screen time on depressive symptoms, video games, social media, and passive screen use.
- The authors recommend retiring the term “screen time,” differentiating numerical screen time from goal-directed “screen use,” and using user-focused, affordance-based measures, objective data, taxonomies, and control groups.
Methods
- Design: conceptual/critical review and commentary; no primary data, sample, or empirical study are reported.
- Evidence base: cites existing reviews, meta-analyses, longitudinal studies, and measurement studies; no systematic search strategy or inclusion criteria are described.
- Main analysis: narrative critique organized around four issues—conceptual chaos, poor estimates, variation across contexts, and change over time—followed by recommendations.
Limitations
- The paper does not state formal limitations of its own approach.
- Evident from the text: it is a critical/conceptual account rather than a systematic review, with no reported systematic search, data extraction, or quality appraisal.
- Evident from the text: the recommendations—such as retiring “screen time,” adopting affordance-based measures, and using control groups—are proposals not empirically tested in this paper.
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Claims the paper makes
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In the paper
“other factors tend to explain far more variability when researchers adopt more theoretically-aligned approaches that explain the link between screen time and psychosocial well-being [3,7]”
§ The Conceptual and Methodological Mayhem of “Screen Time” > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [3] Odgers, 2020, Annual Research Review: Adolescent Mental Health in the Digital Age: Facts, Fears, and Future Directions, J. Child. Psychol. Psychiatry source
- Not checked yetcites [7] Orben, 2019, The association between adolescent well-being and digital technology use, Nat. Hum. Behav. source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesNone of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“there lacks clear longitudinal evidence that they represent a pure causal effect driven by screen media [5,6,7]”
§ The Conceptual and Methodological Mayhem of “Screen Time” > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [5] Jensen, 2019, Young adolescents’ digital technology use and mental health symptoms: Little evidence of longitudinal or daily linkages, Clin. Psychol. Sci. source
- Not checked yetcites [6] Orben, 2019, Social Media’s Enduring Effect on Adolescent Life Satisfaction, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA source
- Not checked yetcites [7] Orben, 2019, The association between adolescent well-being and digital technology use, Nat. Hum. Behav. source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesNone of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“a growing consensus has emerged suggesting that the associations observed between screen time and psychological or health outcomes are very small in size”
§ The Conceptual and Methodological Mayhem of “Screen Time” > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [5] Jensen, 2019, Young adolescents’ digital technology use and mental health symptoms: Little evidence of longitudinal or daily linkages, Clin. Psychol. Sci. source
- Not checked yetcites [6] Orben, 2019, Social Media’s Enduring Effect on Adolescent Life Satisfaction, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA source
- Not checked yetcites [7] Orben, 2019, The association between adolescent well-being and digital technology use, Nat. Hum. Behav. source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“there is wide variation in the self-report measures used to capture screen time.”
§ The Conceptual and Methodological Mayhem of “Screen Time” > 2. Issue 1—Conceptual Chaos—What Is Screen Time?
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesNone of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“accumulating evidence indicates that timing functions are impaired in a variety of developmental disorders including ADHD [32,33], dyslexia [34], and autism [35,36].”
§ The Conceptual and Methodological Mayhem of “Screen Time” > 3. Issue 2—Estimates Are Not Good Enough
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [32] Marx, 2017, Living in the fast lane: Evidence for a global perceptual timing deficit in childhood ADHD caused by distinct but partially overlapping task-dependent cognitive mechanisms, Front. Hum. Neurosci. source
- Not checked yetcites [33] Noreika, 2013, Timing deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): Evidence from neurocognitive and neuroimaging studies, Neuropsychologia source
- Not checked yetcites [34] Gooch, 2011, Time perception, phonological skills and executive function in children with dyslexia and/or ADHD symptoms, J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry source
- Not checked yetcites [35] Isaksson, 2018, Is there a generalized timing impairment in autism spectrum disorders across time scales and paradigms?, J. Psychiatr. Res. source
- Not checked yetcites [36] Karaminis, 2016, Central tendency effects in time interval reproduction in autism, Sci. Rep. source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesNone of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“recent reviews and meta-analyses repeatedly conclude that the evidence base is difficult to interpret and presents mixed findings [3,4]”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“Existing research presents mixed findings, and lacks longitudinal evidence for any causal or long-term effects.”
§ The Conceptual and Methodological Mayhem of “Screen Time” > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [3] Odgers, 2020, Annual Research Review: Adolescent Mental Health in the Digital Age: Facts, Fears, and Future Directions, J. Child. Psychol. Psychiatry source
- Not checked yetcites [4] Orben, 2020, Teenagers, Screens and Social Media: A Narrative Review of Reviews and Key Studies, Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol. source
Load-bearingStrength:boosted· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“evidence suggests that these can be particularly ill-fitting for the purposes of gaining accurate data on people’s technology-related use [27,37,38]”
§ The Conceptual and Methodological Mayhem of “Screen Time” > 3. Issue 2—Estimates Are Not Good Enough
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [27] Ernala, S.K., Burke, M., Leavitt, A., and Ellison, N.B. (2020, January 25–30). How well do people report time spent on Facebook? An evaluation of established survey questions with recommendations. Proceedings of the ACM CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Honolulu, HI, USA. source
- Not checked yetcites [37] Ellis, 2019, Are smartphones really that bad? Improving the psychological measurement of technology-related behaviors, Comput. Hum. Behav. source
- Not checked yetcites [38] Sewall, C.J.R., Bear, T.B., Merranko, J., and Rosen, D. (2020). How psychosocial well-being and usage amount predict inaccuracies in retrospective estimates of digital technology use. Mob. Media Commun. source
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Definitions of screen time vary, which poses a myriad of issues relating to harmonisation, measurement and comparison.”
§ The Conceptual and Methodological Mayhem of “Screen Time” > 2. Issue 1—Conceptual Chaos—What Is Screen Time?
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“when comparing smartphone users’ estimates of their own smartphone use, and checking behaviours with their actual use (garnered from smartphone data), they tend to underestimate these behaviours [39]”
§ The Conceptual and Methodological Mayhem of “Screen Time” > 3. Issue 2—Estimates Are Not Good Enough
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [39] Andrews, S., Ellis, D.A., Shaw, H., and Piwek, L. (2015). Beyond self report: Tools to compare estimated and real-world Smartphone use. PLoS ONE, 10. source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“it is unclear how applicable any given measure of “screen time” will be for the duration of a given piece of research.”
§ The Conceptual and Methodological Mayhem of “Screen Time” > 5. Issue 4—Screen Use Changes over Time
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes? Checkable: unclear✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
- It may state two separate claims as one. 10
- Probably not a substantial claim. 8
In the paper
“for social networking sites such as Facebook, compared to actual use garnered from log data, people tend to overreport how much time they spend on Facebook but underreport how many times they visit per day [27]”
§ The Conceptual and Methodological Mayhem of “Screen Time” > 3. Issue 2—Estimates Are Not Good Enough
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [27] Ernala, S.K., Burke, M., Leavitt, A., and Ellison, N.B. (2020, January 25–30). How well do people report time spent on Facebook? An evaluation of established survey questions with recommendations. Proceedings of the ACM CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Honolulu, HI, USA. source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“adversity in childhood consistently predicts poor psychosocial functioning and long-term health outcomes [12]”
§ The Conceptual and Methodological Mayhem of “Screen Time” > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [12] Bellis, 2014, Adverse childhood experiences: Retrospective study to determine their impact on adult health behaviours and health outcomes in a UK population, J. Public Health source
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“it is far from clear whether participants can accurately estimate the amount of screen time they engage in or whether this estimate is systematically biased by screen use itself.”
§ The Conceptual and Methodological Mayhem of “Screen Time” > 3. Issue 2—Estimates Are Not Good Enough
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“social support garnered through screen-based activities [8], types of social interactions [9], pre-existing levels of social anxiety [10], and fear of missing out [11] might be more influential in predicting well-being outcomes than screen time directly.”
§ The Conceptual and Methodological Mayhem of “Screen Time” > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [8] Wang, 2018, The exacerbating role of perceived social support and the "buffering" role of depression in the relation between sensation seeking and adolescent smartphone addiction, Pers. Individ. Dif. source
- Not checked yetcites [9] Twenge, 2019, Less in-person social interaction with peers among US adolescents in the 21st century and links to loneliness, J. Soc. Pers. Relat. source
- Not checked yetcites [10] Hong, 2019, The mediating and moderating roles of social anxiety and relatedness need satisfaction on the relationship between shyness and problematic mobile phone use among adolescents, Comput. Hum. Behav. source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“even simple screen time measures can be expected to include a high degree of measurement error, which is likely to contribute toward contradictory and inconsistent empirical results.”
§ The Conceptual and Methodological Mayhem of “Screen Time” > 2. Issue 1—Conceptual Chaos—What Is Screen Time?
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The WHO, therefore, does not include screen activities like exergaming”
§ The Conceptual and Methodological Mayhem of “Screen Time” > 2. Issue 1—Conceptual Chaos—What Is Screen Time?
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [14] World Health Organization (2020, April 17). Guidelines on Physical Activity, Sedentary Behaviour and Sleep for Children under 5 Years of Age. Available online: https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/311664. source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“adolescents with neurodevelopmental disorders have higher rates of social media use [28] and may use screens to support social and communication skills [29]”
§ The Conceptual and Methodological Mayhem of “Screen Time” > 2. Issue 1—Conceptual Chaos—What Is Screen Time?
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [28] Nereim, 2019, A primary care pediatrician’s guide to assessing problematic interactive media use, Curr. Opin. Pediatr. source
- Not checked yetcites [29] Petrou, 2016, A trial of an iPad™ intervention targeting social communication skills in children with autism, Autism source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“there is a tendency to assume that screen time is a largely unidimensional or homogeneous construct, with little work to unify definitions or ensure that conceptualisations are agreed upon.”
§ The Conceptual and Methodological Mayhem of “Screen Time” > 2. Issue 1—Conceptual Chaos—What Is Screen Time?
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“participants were most accurate (albeit only at a rate of 34%) when reporting on number of times per day they visited Facebook, but very inaccurate when gauging how many “time”, “minutes” or “hours” they had spent on average per day on Facebook”
§ The Conceptual and Methodological Mayhem of “Screen Time” > 2. Issue 1—Conceptual Chaos—What Is Screen Time?
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [27] Ernala, S.K., Burke, M., Leavitt, A., and Ellison, N.B. (2020, January 25–30). How well do people report time spent on Facebook? An evaluation of established survey questions with recommendations. Proceedings of the ACM CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Honolulu, HI, USA. source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Such studies are lacking because ensuring participant compliance is challenging [4,49], and those published fail to show consistent results [50,51,52].”
§ The Conceptual and Methodological Mayhem of “Screen Time” > 5. Issue 4—Screen Use Changes over Time
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [4] Orben, 2020, Teenagers, Screens and Social Media: A Narrative Review of Reviews and Key Studies, Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol. source
- Not checked yetcites [49] Allcott, 2019, The welfare effects of social media, Am. Econ. Rev. source
- Not checked yetcites [50] Vanman, 2018, The burden of online friends: The effects of giving up Facebook on stress and well-being, J. Soc. Psychol. source
- Not checked yetcites [51] Tromholt, 2016, The Facebook Experiment: Quitting Facebook Leads to Higher Levels of Well-Being, Cyberpsychol. Behav. Soc. Netw. source
- Not checked yetcites [52] Hunt, 2018, No more FOMO: Limiting social media decreases loneliness and depression, J. Soc. Clin. Psychol. source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“An affordance-based approach avoids relying on the commercial success of platforms or devices and instead establishes measurements which should theoretically remain more stable over time.”
§ The Conceptual and Methodological Mayhem of “Screen Time” > 5. Issue 4—Screen Use Changes over Time
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“there has been little movement in the field to develop high-quality screen time measures because this involves a variety of methodological, security and privacy challenges.”
§ The Conceptual and Methodological Mayhem of “Screen Time” > 3. Issue 2—Estimates Are Not Good Enough
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“researchers may also start to realise new opportunities by teasing out causal relationships between screen time and psychological impacts with observational data alone [54].”
§ The Conceptual and Methodological Mayhem of “Screen Time” > 5. Issue 4—Screen Use Changes over Time
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [54] Rohrer, 2018, Thinking clearly about correlations and causation: Graphical causal models for observational data, Adv. Methods Pr. Psychol. Sci.
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“studies of this nature would necessitate the use of control groups where subsets of participants are asked to refrain from using screens (or a certain subset of them).”
§ The Conceptual and Methodological Mayhem of “Screen Time” > 5. Issue 4—Screen Use Changes over Time
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“repeated data collection can become disruptive for participants’ education and this can make it more likely that researchers will seek out measurements that are quick but which are less psychometrically substantive to draw strong conclusions.”
§ The Conceptual and Methodological Mayhem of “Screen Time” > 5. Issue 4—Screen Use Changes over Time
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“no research to date has used a profiling or cluster-based approach to explore how these various screen time proportionalities may map out onto psychological or behavioural outcomes.”
§ The Conceptual and Methodological Mayhem of “Screen Time” > 4. Issue 3—Screen Use Varies across Contexts
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While recording screen time on individual devices such as a smartphone, or a specific smartphone app is now possible, even these approaches will struggle to address how much time is spent on different forms of screen-based engagement which take place on multiple screens.”
§ The Conceptual and Methodological Mayhem of “Screen Time” > 4. Issue 3—Screen Use Varies across Contexts
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
Concerns that screen time negatively impacts psychosocial functioning, health and behaviours are widespread.
“concerns that screen time negatively impacts psychosocial functioning, health and behaviours remain widespread, and are routinely voiced in academic, policy and media circles.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Most used self- or parent-reported data on total screen use rather than assessing specific device or activity types that might have differing associations with sleep.2,13”
From Screen Use at Bedtime and Sleep Duration and Quality Among Youths (2024) · cites this paper as [13]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“Screen time does not capture the content or context of screen use, which could be examined in future research [20, 128].”
From Screen time and mental health: a prospective analysis of the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study (2024) · cites this paper as [128]
Citations
Cites
Twenge, J. M., Joiner, T. E., Rogers, M. L., & Martin, G. N. (2018) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2167702617723376 · Cited by 1,705
The association between adolescent well-being and digital technology use
Orben, A., & Przybylski, A. K. (2019) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-018-0506-1 · Cited by 1,500
Self-citationTwenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2018) · Preventive Medicine Reports · doi:10.1016/j.pmedr.2018.10.003 · Cited by 1,304
Odgers, C. L., & Jensen, M. R. (2020) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.13190 · Cited by 1,189 · cited 2×
“Whilst some evidence routinely shows negative correlations between screen time and well-being [1,2], recent reviews and meta-analyses repeatedly conclude that the evidence base is difficult to interpret and presents mixed findings [3,4].”
BackgroundResultElhai, J. D., Levine, J. C., Dvorak, R. D., & Hall, B. J. (2016) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2016.05.079 · Cited by 1,020
Thinking Clearly About Correlations and Causation: Graphical Causal Models for Observational Data
Rohrer, J. M. (2018) · Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2515245917745629 · Cited by 1,002 · cited 1×
“Alternatively, researchers may also start to realise new opportunities by teasing out causal relationships between screen time and psychological impacts with observational data alone [54].”
BackgroundNo More FOMO: Limiting Social Media Decreases Loneliness and Depression
Hunt, M. G., Marx, R., Lipson, C., & Young, J. (2018) · Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1521/jscp.2018.37.10.751 · Cited by 947
The welfare effects of social media
Allcott, H., Braghieri, L., Eichmeyer, S., & Gentzkow, M. (2020) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/aer.20190658 · Cited by 857 · cited 1×
“Such studies are lacking because ensuring participant compliance is challenging [4,49], and those published fail to show consistent results [50–52].”
ResultNesi, J., & Prinstein, M. J. (2015) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10802-015-0020-0 · Cited by 758
Teenagers, screens and social media: a narrative review of reviews and key studies
Orben, A. (2020) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-019-01825-4 · Cited by 706
Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
1 of the 54 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- Oxford University Press (2020). Oxford English Dictionary (2020), Oxford University Press.
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Items 201–289 of 289
Screen Use Measurement Tools: A Mapping of Instruments, Gaps, and Future Directions
Shaleha, R. R. A., Roque, N. A., Andrews, H. J., Calfee, K., & Lee, S. (2026) · Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking · doi:10.1177/21522715261417288 · Cited by 1
“4 Moreover, it creates overly simplistic narratives, typically framing screen use in terms of adverse outcomes, addiction, or dependency while neglecting neutral or positive uses.”
Rajagopal, A., Nisar, M., Morawska, A., Edwards, E. J., & Khan, A. (2026) · Journal of Psychologists and Counsellors in Schools · doi:10.1177/20556365261423543 · Cited by 5
“Specifically, a comprehensive approach to managing screen use goes beyond limiting duration, it considers the content (what is being consumed), context (purpose or settings), and interaction (level of engagement) with screens (Griffith et al., 2024; Kaye et al., 2020; Reeves et al., 2020).”
Who benefits from the idea of screen time?
Yee, A. Z. H., & Luyt, B. (2026) · New Media & Society · doi:10.1177/14614448261444717 · Cited by 2
Yee, A. Z. H., Lim, S. S., Chandrasekaran, S., & Low, S. (2026) · Journal of Children and Media · doi:10.1080/17482798.2026.2706040 · Cited by 1
Screen Use and Emotional, Behavioral, and Social Development in Children
McQuaid, F., Skafida, V., McQuillan, R., & Lee, B. (2026) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2026.26804 · Cited by 1
Kućar, M., & Šimleša, S. (2022) · Radovi Zavoda za znanstveni rad Varaždin · doi:10.21857/y54jofvrxm · Cited by 1
Using browser data to understand desires to spend time online.
McCrosky, J. D., Parry, D. A., Sewall, C. J. R., & Orben, A. C. (2023) · Technology Mind and Behavior · doi:10.1037/tmb0000095 · Cited by 1
Self-citationBem-estar digital, crianças e jovens
Kubrusly, A. (2023) · Pós-Limiar · doi:10.24220/2595-9557v6a2023e7005 · Cited by 1
Specific Interventions Targeting Sedentary Behaviour in Children and Adolescents
Salmon, J., Koorts, H., Arundell, L., & Timperio, A. F. (2023) · Springer series on epidemiology and public health · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-41881-5_17 · Cited by 1
Roberto, D. M. T., Basniak, L. C., da Costa, S. D. S., da Silva, S. S., Vieira, F. G. K., & Hinnig, P. D. F. (2024) · Revista de Nutrição · doi:10.1590/1678-9865202437e230108 · Cited by 2
Vision-Based Model for Continuous Monitoring and Evaluation of Multiple Digital Screen Exposure
Amores, J. D. T., Brillante, A. N. C., Deveza, A. R., Ong, J. D., Geslani, G. R., Roxas, E. A., & Bandiola, R. D. M. (2024) · IEEE Region 10 Conference (TENCON) · doi:10.1109/tencon61640.2024.10902803 · Cited by 1
Screen Use and Behavioral Addiction
Bhargava, R., & Seshadri, S. P. (2021) · Indian Journal of Social Psychiatry · doi:10.4103/ijsp.ijsp_272_21 · Cited by 1
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Using Browser Data to Understand Desires to Spend Time OnlinePreprint
Crosky, J. D. M., Parry, D. A., Sewall, C. J. R., et al. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/fbdge
Self-citationMeta-Analysis: The Effect of Screen Time and Fast-Food Intake on Obesity in Children and Adolescents
Masters Program in Public Health, U. S. M., Annisaa, S., Dewi, Y. L. R., & Pamungkasari, E. P. (2021) · Journal of Health Promotion and Behavior · doi:10.26911/thejhpb.2021.06.03.01
The Effects of IT Addiction on Trust and Social Influence Perceptions
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Eisenberg, K., Hechtman, L. T., Lonergan, M. H., McIntyre, A., Feizi, S., Qadri, S. R. A., & Brunet, A. (2022) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-022-02099-z
Digital communication technologies and mental health
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Supplemental Material for Using Browser Data to Understand Desires to Spend Time Online
McCrosky, J. D., Parry, D. A., Sewall, C. J. R., & Orben, A. C. (2023) · Technology Mind and Behavior · doi:10.1037/tmb0000095.supp
Self-citationAhmed, A. (2022) · Annals of Human and Social Sciences · doi:10.35484/ahss.2022(3-ii)74 · Cited by 2
Gauthier, B., & Pagani, L. S. (2024) · Health Promotion and Chronic Disease Prevention in Canada · doi:10.24095/hpcdp.44.2.01
“37 We know as well that almost all discretionary screen time, for most children and adolescents, such as that which occurs in the bedroom, is devoted to recreational uses, and that very little is devoted to learning and school work.”
BackgroundLieberoth, A., Størup, J. O., & Winther-Lindqvist, D. A. (2022) · BUKS - Tidsskrift for Børne- & Ungdomskultur · doi:10.7146/buks.v38i66.133783
Is it Time to Abandon the Media Multitasking Index?Preprint
Parry, D. A., & Fisher, J. T. (2024) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/jtmnp
Mimoun, E., Dejean, S., de Chivré, M., Salis, A., Callens, F., Chouiba, S., Inizan, T., Decauville, C. S., & Gauthier-Lafaye, C. (2024) · Neuropsychiatrie de l Enfance et de l Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.neurenf.2024.07.005
Morawska, A., Mitchell, A. E., & Tooth, L. R. (2024) · Gezinstherapie Wereldwijd · doi:10.1007/s12440-024-00233-8
“(Birken et al. 2011), hoewel er de laatste tijd wordt opgeroepen om meer te kijken naar de gedragingen die schermen mogelijk maken dan naar de specifieke kenmerken of apparaten die worden gebruikt (Kaye et al. 2020).”
ScreenSense: Screen Activity Detection in Real-World Environments with Indoor Light Sensors
Routh, T., Saoda, N., Nikseresht, F., Billah, M. F. R. M., Gao, J., Rajan, V. G., & Campbell, B. (2024) · ACM International Conference on Systems for Energy-Efficient Buildings, Cities, and Transportation (BuildSys) · doi:10.1145/3671127.3698167
Mobile Media and Asian Youths: Everything Everywhere All at Once
Yee, A. Z. H., & Loy, G. P. (2024) · Mobile communication in Asia · doi:10.1007/978-94-024-2282-5_1
Digital Play Addiction Tendency Behaviors in Early Children Reflections in Social Environments
Budak, K. S. (2025) · Advances in social networking and online communities book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3693-4191-9.ch006
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“4 Initially, the primary focus was on the amount of time used on social media, 1,5,6 but currently a more fine-grained and purposeful focus has been advocated.”
Hafiz, S., Soron, T. R., Hossain, M. S., Hossain, B., Tofail, F., & Haque, R. (2025) · doi:10.2196/preprints.73524
Siddiq, F., & Scherer, R. (2025) · Nordic Journal of Digital Literacy · doi:10.18261/njdl.20.1.6
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Felt Time Scale (FTS): Development and ValidationPreprint
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Screen time and adolescent well-being: a comparative study of Russia and Cuba
Kornienko, D. S., Rudnova, N. A., Veraksa, А., Oslé, J. E. T., Chursina, A., & Rosales, E. C. (2025) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2025.1587475 · Cited by 1
Skogen, J., Finserås, T., Sivertsen, B., Colman, I., Andersen, A. I. O., & Hjetland, G. (2025) · F1000Research · doi:10.12688/f1000research.161622.3
“4 Initially, the primary focus was on the amount of time used on social media, 1,5,6 but currently a more fine-grained and purposeful focus has been advocated.”
Lu, S., Xu, C., Liu, X., Guo, W., & Xing, X. (2025) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2025.09.004
Skog, H., Määttä, S., Säïsänen, L., Lakka, T. A., & Haapala, E. A. (2025) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2025.09.054
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Screen Exposure and Childhood Adiposity in Socially Vulnerable Settings: Cross-Sectional Study
Duarte, A., Martins, J., Silva, M. J., Augusto, C., & Rosario, R. V. (2025) · JMIR Pediatrics and Parenting · doi:10.2196/77431
“This use encompasses both active and passive engagement with various devices and content [1,3].”
Skogen, J. C., Finserås, T. R., Sivertsen, B., et al. (2025) · F1000Research · doi:10.12688/f1000research.161622.2
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Addressing the Problems in Smartphone Addiction Research
James, R., & Hitcham, L. (2026) · Palgrave Studies in Cyberpsychology. · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-96188-5_6
The Importance of Understanding Smartphone Addiction
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Digital resilience: reflections and considerations for students' technology use
Hodge, S. (2026) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-34057-4.00004-3
Hafiz, S., Soron, T. R., Hossain, M. M., Hossain, B., Tofail, F., & Haque, R. (2026) · JMIR Human Factors · doi:10.2196/73524 · Cited by 1
Sultana, S., Phurailatpam, J., Devi, W. S., & Yumnum, H. (2025) · Journal of Medical Society · doi:10.4103/jms.jms_72_25
The risks and opportunities of adopting digital technologies as part of unpaid care
Hertog, E., Shi, L., & Rodel, L. (2025) · Oxford Review of Economic Policy · doi:10.1093/oxrep/graf033
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Investigating the Detrimental Implications of Screen Exposure on Young Adults: A Research Survey
Dwivedi, N., Gupta, R., Manocha, U., Munjal, B., & Vidushi (2025) · International Conference on Advanced Computing and Emerging Technologies (ACET) · doi:10.1109/acet67282.2025.11430262
“A considerable amount of data, though consistently indicates that screen use and well-being are negatively correlated [14], [15].”
Healthy Technology Use in Schools: Implications for Screen Time, Social Media, and Smartphone Use
Thomas, G., & Campbell, M. (2026) · Journal of Psychologists and Counsellors in Schools · doi:10.1177/20556365261426201
“Yet this lens is conceptually thin and methodologically weak (Kaye et al., 2020).”
Dumont, R., Nehme, M., Schrempft, S., Baysson, H., Uppal, A., Bouhet, A. R., Mechoullam, S., Lamour, J., Stringhini, S., & Guessous, I. (2026) · Journal of General Internal Medicine · doi:10.1007/s11606-026-10371-0
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Beyond Screen Time: A Neurodiversity-Affirmative Research Agenda for Screen Use in Autism
van Asselt, A. (2026) · Autism in Adulthood · doi:10.1177/25739581261452097
Comprehensive Patterns and Correlates of Screen Use in Chinese Children with HFASDPreprint
Shao, H., Zhu, H., Zhan, G., Li, Y., Deng, H., & Zou, X. (2026) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-9711669/v1
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“40 Our study addresses some of these gaps by using an objective measure of screen time and examining different types of screen activities during the first week post injury.”
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“Dominant approaches continue to operationalize screen time primarily through duration-based metrics [31, 48, 55], thereby flattening the construct and obscuring the meaningful distinctions between structured, task-driven academic usage [20, 45] and passive, entertainment-oriented consumption.”
The associations between screen time and mental health in children aged 0-12: A systematic review
Santos, R. M. S., Ventura, S. D. A., Gonçalves, M. E. O. D. A., Nogueira, Y. J. D. A., Mendes, C. G., de Miranda, D. M., & Romano‐Silva, M. A. (2026) · Journal of Child and Adolescent Mental Health · doi:10.2989/17280583.2026.2661687
“Environmental enrichment and parent–child interactions, which are crucial for developing social skills, may also be limited by excessive screen use (Hendry et al., 2023; Kaye et al., 2020).”
Scrolling for a cause: Supporting intentional smartphone use through the Ulysses Donation Pledge
Strömberg, M., & Heitmayer, M. (2026) · Computers in Human Behavior Reports · doi:10.1016/j.chbr.2026.101180
Chandrasekaran, M., Zhang, Q., Padmapriya, N., Aishworiya, R., Chong, S. C., Kembhavi, G., McLeod, B. D., McCrickerd, K., Chow, J. C., & Fogel, A. M. (2026) · Obesity Reviews · doi:10.1111/obr.70185 · Cited by 1
“A greater reliance on digital technology has led to concerns over increased screen time, defined as time spent viewing tele-vision, using smartphones, electronic readers, or computers, or playing video games [1].”
Duarte, A., Martins, J., Silva, M. J., et al. (2025) · doi:10.2196/preprints.77431
Beyond apps: a method to model full distributions of screen content over time to study media effects
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Latent profiles of digital technology use and their relation to executive functions
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Development and validation of the digital numbing scale (DNS)
Duradoni, M., Colombini, G., Barucci, C., Gursesli, M. C., Macey, J., Thawonmas, R., Sun, J., Thawonmas, R., Guazzini, A., & Hamari, J. (2026) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2026.2699283
Beyond screen time: Risk factors for problematic social media use in 10-year-old childrenPreprint
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Objective Assessment of Media Screens Effect on Physical Activity in Preschool Children
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“However, self-report methods [12], [13], [14], [21] are subjective and can lead to biases and inaccuracies, particularly in preschool children, due to memory lapses and judgment errors [16], [22].”
The Impact of Everyday Technology Use on Cognitive Health
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Metadata
- Authors
- K. Kaye, L., Orben, A., A. Ellis, D., C. Hunter, S., & Houghton, S.
- Affiliations
- Department of Psychology, Edge Hill University, Ormskirk L39 4QP, UK
- MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit (GB)
- School of Management, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK
- Department of Psychology, Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow G4 0BA, UK
- The University of Western Australia (AU)
- Venue
- International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2020-05-22
- Volume
- 17
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 3661
- ISSN
- 1660-4601 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7277381
- OpenAlex
- W3026494741
- Semantic Scholar
- fa852005bc52ac924df6ef97a29a2222d469469b
- Cited by
- 304
- References
- 54
- Citations by year
- 2026: 49 · 2025: 54 · 2024: 55 · 2023: 49 · 2022: 54 · 2021: 32 · 2020: 10
- FWCI
- 56.47
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- dx.doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- UWA Profiles and Research Repository (UWA) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- ResearchOnline (acceptedVersion, cc-by)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
- Edge Hill University Research Information Repository (Edge Hill University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- OSF Preprints (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- OSF Preprints (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion)
- Apollo (University of Cambridge) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Apollo (cc-by)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Child Development and Digital Technology
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Physical Activity and Health
- Keywords
- screen time, screen use, self-report measures, objective measures, longitudinal effects
- MeSH terms
- Screen Time, Humans
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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