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Cited by 9Forensic Anthropology and Bioarchaeology StudiesAutopsy Techniques and OutcomesBone fractures and treatments

Osteonal Damage Patterns from Ballistic and Blunt Force Trauma in Human Long Bones

Open access
Sexton, Keira, Schwab, Nathalie, Galtés, Ignasi, Casas, Anna, Armentano, Nuria, Brillas, Pedro, Garrido, Xavier, Jordana, Xavier·2024·Life
DOI 10.3390/life14020220PMC PMC10890644
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Abstract

Forensic anthropologists play a key role in skeletal trauma analysis and commonly use macroscopic features to distinguish between trauma types. However, this approach can be challenging, particularly in cases of highly comminuted or incompletely recovered fractures. Histological analysis of microscopic fracture characteristics in fractured bones may thus help provide additional information on trauma type and bone fracture biomechanics in general. This study analysed the extent of microcrack damage to osteons in long bones with blunt force trauma (BFT) and gunshot trauma (GST), from both traumatic death cases and post-mortem experimental fractures. We identified four types of osteonal damage (OD). In traumatic death cases, OD affecting the inside of the osteon and compromising the Haversian canal (type 1) was found to be indicative of BFT. Moreover, OD affecting the cement line (type 3) and interstitial lamellae (type 4) was more common in the GST samples. OD affecting the inside of the osteon without compromising the Haversian canal (type 2) was not found to be indicative of either trauma type. In cases of experimental fractures, our study revealed that post-mortem fractures in dry bone samples featured the highest amount of OD, particularly of type 4. This study also found that the experimentally produced GST featured similar OD patterns to GST death cases. These findings support our hypothesis that there are distinct osteonal damage patterns in human long bones with BFT and GST, which are of relevant value for trauma analysis in forensic anthropology.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This exploratory histological study identifies distinct osteonal microcrack damage patterns in human long bones with blunt force trauma (BFT) versus gunshot trauma (GST). It reports that BFT is associated with damage inside the osteon compromising the Haversian canal (type 1), while GST is more associated with cement line (type 3) and interstitial lamellae (type 4) damage.

Key findings

  • In traumatic death cases, OD type 1 was significantly greater in BFT_autopsy than in GST_mass grave (Tukey’s test: p < 0.001), while OD types 3 and 4 were significantly greater in GST_mass grave than in BFT_autopsy (p = 0.024 and p = 0.021, respectively).
  • Within BFT_autopsy samples, OD type 1 was significantly greater than the other three OD types (Tukey’s post hoc: p < 0.001); OD type 2 was not found to be indicative of either trauma type.
  • BFT_dry experimental had the greatest total OD and was significantly greater than all other sample groups (Dwass–Steel–Critchlow–Fligner: p < 0.001), with OD types 1 and 4 significantly greater than other types within that group (Tukey’s: p < 0.001).
  • GST_mass grave and GST_experimental showed no statistically significant differences in any of the four OD types (Tukey’s: p = 1.000, 0.993, 1.000, and 1.000, respectively), supporting similar OD patterns between experimental GST and GST death cases.

Methods

  • Histological analysis of human long bones from traumatic death cases and experimental post-mortem fractures: five BFT autopsy humeri, five GST bone fragments from four humeri and one femur recovered from a Spanish Civil War mass grave, two fresh donated humeri used for experimental GST and a control, and one dry donated humerus used for experimental BFT.
  • Bone samples were embedded in resin, cut into 100 µm thin sections, examined under a light microscope at 4×, and stitched into cortical mosaics; a 1 mm² indexed grid was used to randomly select 20 subfields per region (40 per mosaic) for analysis.
  • Osteonal damage (OD) was defined as osteons compromised by microcracks, measured as percentage of damaged osteons per subfield, and classified into four types; statistical analysis used Shapiro–Wilk, Mann–Whitney U, two-way ANOVA, Dwass–Steel–Critchlow–Fligner, Tukey’s post hoc, Wilcoxon signed-rank, and intra-class correlation tests.

Limitations

  • The paper states the main limitation is the small sample size, which prevents sufficient discriminatory power for accurate classification and limits exploration of variables such as age and sex.
  • The paper notes that histological analysis is destructive, though it also states that a small fragment from a comminuted fracture was sufficient in the Spanish Civil War samples.
  • The paper states that other trauma types, such as sharp force trauma and blast trauma, should also be investigated; it also notes that future experimental GST studies should consider additional axial compression, different bullet types, impact velocities, and shot distances to better simulate intra vitam conditions.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3390/life14020220

Cites

39 of 39 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

2 of 63 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Findingown data

    In the GST_mass grave sample, OD was greater in the exit side compared to the entry side.

    “In the GST_mass grave sample, OD was greater in the exit side compared to the entry side.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    OD affecting the inside of the osteon without compromising the Haversian canal (type 2) is not indicative of either BFT or GST.

    “OD affecting the inside of the osteon without compromising the Haversian canal (type 2) was not found to be indicative of either trauma type.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    At low loading rates, in BFT, osteonal damage affecting the osteon's Haversian canals was the most paradigmatic.

    “At low loading rates, in BFT, osteonal damage affecting the osteon’s Haversian canals was found to be the most paradigmatic.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The intra-class correlation coefficient was high for both total OD and OD type, indicating excellent intra-rater agreement.

    “The intra-class correlation coefficient (ICC) was high for both total OD and OD type (ICC > 0.9) indicating excellent intra-rater agreement.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    There were no significant differences between the first and second data recorded by the same observer for both total osteonal damage and osteonal damage type.

    “There were no significant differences between the first and second data recorded by the same observer for both total osteonal damage (Wilcoxon’s test: p-value = 0.909) and osteonal damage type (Wilcoxon’s test: p-value = 0.673).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 32
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 15

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Long bones hit by a bullet are primarily fractured due to hydraulic pressure built up in the bone marrow, generated by the temporary cavity, which acts in all directions across the whole cortical bone, causing the diaphysis to split open from within and shatter.

    “Long bones hit by a bullet are primarily fractured due to the hydraulic pressure built up in the bone marrow (generated by the temporary cavity), which acts in all directions across the whole cortical bone, causing the diaphysis to split open from within and shatter [5,31].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [5] Veenstra, 2022, Gunshot Trauma in Human Long Bones: Towards Practical Diagnostic Guidance for Forensic Anthropologists, Forensic Sci. Med. Pathol. source

      Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 2 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [31] Coupland, R.M., Rothschild, M.A., Thali, M.J., and Kneubuehl, B.P. (2011). Wound Ballistics: Basics and Applications, Springer. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    A potential explanation for the non-significant differences is the impact-related nature of BFT_autopsy cases, consisting of traffic accidents and falls, which transfers more kinetic energy, involves triaxial stress states and multiple high impact points, unlike a simple three-point bend.

    “A potential explanation for this may be impact-related nature of the BFT_autopsy cases, consisting of traffic accidents and falls, which transfers more kinetic energy, involves triaxial stress states and multiple high impact points on the bone, unlike a fracture caused by a relatively simple three-point bend [16,30].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [16] Schwab, N., Galtés, I., Winter-Buchwalder, M., Ortega-Sánchez, M., and Jordana, X. (2023). Osteonal Microcracking Pattern: A Potential Vitality Marker in Human Bone Trauma. Biology, 12. source

      Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [30] Christensen, 2021, Forensic Fractography of Bone: Fracture Origins from Impacts, and an Improved Understanding of the Failure Mechanism Involved in Beveling, Forensic Anthropol. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    When comparing OD types, there were statistically significant differences within and between the different sample groups.

    “When comparing OD types, there were statistically significant differences within and between the different sample groups (ANOVA: p-value < 0.001).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Total osteonal damage is greater in GST than in BFT traumatic death cases, but the difference is not statistically significant.

    “The results of our study on osteonal microcrack damage, when comparing GST and BFT traumatic death cases, showed that total osteonal damage is greater in GST despite the difference not being significant.”
    • Also stated in: § 5. Conclusions · plain
      “Our study revealed that in trauma death cases, there is more osteonal damage in gunshot trauma compared to blunt force trauma, although the difference is not significant.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Total OD differs in each sample group; BFT_dry experimental had the greatest OD followed by the GST_mass grave samples, then the BFT_autopsy samples, and lastly, the GST_experimental sample.

    “The total OD differs in each sample group. BFT_dry experimental had the greatest OD followed by the GST_mass grave samples, then the BFT_autopsy samples, and lastly, the GST_experimental sample (Table 2).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Both GST_mass grave and GST_experimental samples had greater OD in differing regions (exit and entry, respectively).

    “Both GST_mass grave and GST_experimental samples had greater OD in differing regions (exit and entry, respectively).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    The differences in OD are not significant between GST_mass grave and BFT_autopsy samples nor the GST_experimental sample.

    “Having said this, the differences are not significant between GST_mass grave and BFT_autopsy samples nor the GST_experimental sample.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    For total osteonal damage, there were no significant differences between the data recorded by the first observer and a different observer, with an ICC of 0.798 indicating good inter-rater agreement.

    “Similarly, in terms of total osteonal damage there were no significant differences between the data recorded by the first observer and a different observer (Inter-rater reliability: p-value = 0.844), with an ICC of 0.798 indicating good inter-rater agreement.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    BFT_autopsy had greater OD in the tension region, although not significantly.

    “BFT_autopsy also had greater OD in the tension region despite not being significant.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Within GST_mass grave and GST_experimental samples, OD types 3 and 4 were the most common when compared to OD types 1 and 2, but these differences were not statistically significant.

    “Within GST_mass grave and GST_experimental samples, OD types 3 and 4 were the most common when compared to OD types 1 and 2 (Table 2); however, these differences were not statistically significant (Figure 4).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The difference in OD between tension and compression sides was statistically significant for the BFT_dry experimental samples but not for the BFT_autopsy samples.

    “These differences were only statistically significant for the BFT_dry experimental samples (Mann–Whitney U: p-value = 0.026) and not for the BFT_autopsy samples (Mann–Whitney U: p-value = 0.213).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    When considering GST samples alone, there were no significant differences in OD types within or between the sample groups, although OD types 3 and 4 were the most common in both.

    “When considering the GST (mass grave and experimental) samples alone, there were no significant differences in terms of OD types present within the sample groups themselves nor between them, although OD types 3 and 4 were the most common in both samples.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Type 4 OD was also greater in both GST samples when compared to BFT_autopsy, although not comparable to that of the dry specimen.

    “However, type 4 OD was also greater in both GST samples when compared to BFT_autopsy, although not comparable to that of the dry specimen.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    BFT_dry experimental had significantly the greatest total OD and the greatest OD types 1 and 4 out of all sample groups.

    “When considering the post-mortem BFT dry sample (PMI of 20 years), BFT_dry experimental had significantly the greatest total OD and the greatest OD types 1 and 4 out of all the sample groups.”
    • Also stated in: § 5. Conclusions · plain
      “Our study additionally revealed that post-mortem fractures in dry bones are characterised by a higher amount of osteonal damage, particularly the osteonal damage affecting the interstitial lamellae (type 4).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Despite microcracks diminishing stiffness, they represent a form of defence against crack formation and bone failure through a phenomenon known as microcrack toughening.

    “Despite microcracks (MCKs) diminishing stiffness, they represent a form of defence against crack formation and bone failure through a phenomenon known as microcrack toughening [13].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [13] Currey, J.D. (2013). Bones: Structure and Mechanics, Princeton University Press.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Cranial vault trauma has been well studied compared to long bone injuries, despite these injuries also being key for reconstructing events surrounding a person's death.

    “Cranial vault trauma has been well studied compared to long bone injuries, despite these injuries also being key for reconstructing events surrounding a person’s death [3,7,9].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [3] Saukko, P., and Knight, B. (2004). Knight’s Forensic Pathology, CRC Press. [3rd ed.]. source
    • cites [7] Rainwater, C.W., and Passalacqua, N.V. (2015). Skeletal Trauma Analysis: Case Studies in Context, John Wiley & Sons. source
    • cites [9] Martrille, 2019, Interpretation of Long Bones Ballistic Trauma, Forensic Sci. Int. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The mechanics surrounding MCKs are still yet to be fully understood and have mainly been investigated in terms of trauma timing in BFT cases.

    “The mechanics surrounding MCKs are still yet to be fully understood and have mainly been investigated in terms trauma timing in BFT cases [14,15,16].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [14] Porta, 2011, Distinguishing between Perimortem and Postmortem Fractures: Are Osteons of Any Help?, Int. J. Leg. Med. source
    • cites [15] Schwab, 2022, Microcracking Pattern in Fractured Bones: New Approach for Distinguishing between Peri- and Postmortem Fractures, Int. J. Leg. Med.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [16] Schwab, N., Galtés, I., Winter-Buchwalder, M., Ortega-Sánchez, M., and Jordana, X. (2023). Osteonal Microcracking Pattern: A Potential Vitality Marker in Human Bone Trauma. Biology, 12. source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Void structures inside the osteon such as Haversian canals, osteocyte lacunae and canaliculi act as stress concentration sites where MCKs may initiate.

    “In the literature, the void structures inside the osteon such as the Haversian canals, osteocyte lacunae and canaliculi are said to act as stress concentration sites where MCKs may initiate [12,13,15,16].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [12] Ebacher, 2012, Sub-Lamellar Microcracking and Roles of Canaliculi in Human Cortical Bone, Acta Biomater. source
    • cites [13] Currey, J.D. (2013). Bones: Structure and Mechanics, Princeton University Press.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [15] Schwab, 2022, Microcracking Pattern in Fractured Bones: New Approach for Distinguishing between Peri- and Postmortem Fractures, Int. J. Leg. Med.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [16] Schwab, N., Galtés, I., Winter-Buchwalder, M., Ortega-Sánchez, M., and Jordana, X. (2023). Osteonal Microcracking Pattern: A Potential Vitality Marker in Human Bone Trauma. Biology, 12. source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The exact biomechanics behind ballistic bone trauma remain controversial as it is difficult to apply the fundamental laws of mechanics to such a transient event.

    “The exact biomechanics behind ballistic bone trauma remain controversial as it is difficult to apply the fundamental laws of mechanics to such a transient event [6].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [6] Kieser, J., Taylor, M., and Carr, D. (2012). Forensic Biomechanics, Wiley. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Increased crack velocity results in less energy absorption during travel and further propagation, resulting in highly comminuted fractures.

    “The crack’s increased velocity results in less energy absorption during its travel and further propagation, resulting in highly comminuted fractures [13].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [13] Currey, J.D. (2013). Bones: Structure and Mechanics, Princeton University Press.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In fresh BFT cases, a higher proportion of osteonal MCKs can be observed when compared to dry bone which has greater interstitial MCKs.

    “These studies have demonstrated that in fresh BFT cases, a higher proportion of osteonal MCKs can be observed when compared to dry bone which has greater interstitial MCKs [15,16].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [15] Schwab, 2022, Microcracking Pattern in Fractured Bones: New Approach for Distinguishing between Peri- and Postmortem Fractures, Int. J. Leg. Med.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [16] Schwab, N., Galtés, I., Winter-Buchwalder, M., Ortega-Sánchez, M., and Jordana, X. (2023). Osteonal Microcracking Pattern: A Potential Vitality Marker in Human Bone Trauma. Biology, 12. source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The velocity of trauma has an effect on how the fracture line propagates in bone.

    “This is in line with Piekarski’s [32] hypothesis that the velocity of trauma has an effect on how the fracture line propagates in bone.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [32] Piekarski, 1970, Fracture of Bone, J. Appl. Phys. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    There are distinct osteonal damage patterns in human long bones with BFT and GST, which are of relevant value for trauma analysis in forensic anthropology.

    “These findings support our hypothesis that there are distinct osteonal damage patterns in human long bones with BFT and GST, which are of relevant value for trauma analysis in forensic anthropology.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Studies on human long bones are starting to shift from a general description and focus on the fractures' pathophysiology or the ballistic variables towards a more detailed assessment of macroscopic fracture characteristics themselves.

    “Studies on human long bones are starting to shift from a general description and focus on the fractures’ pathophysiology or the ballistic variables towards a more detailed assessment of macroscopic fracture characteristics themselves [3,5,10].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [3] Saukko, P., and Knight, B. (2004). Knight’s Forensic Pathology, CRC Press. [3rd ed.]. source
    • cites [5] Veenstra, 2022, Gunshot Trauma in Human Long Bones: Towards Practical Diagnostic Guidance for Forensic Anthropologists, Forensic Sci. Med. Pathol. source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

    • cites [10] Schwab, 2023, Can Synbone® Cylinders and Deer Femurs Reproduce Ballistic Fracture Patterns Observed in Human Long Bones?, J. Mater. Sci. source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    MCKs are impacted by trauma circumstances and thus are of forensic relevance.

    “MCKs, however, are also impacted by trauma circumstances and thus are of forensic relevance [12,13].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [12] Ebacher, 2012, Sub-Lamellar Microcracking and Roles of Canaliculi in Human Cortical Bone, Acta Biomater. source
    • cites [13] Currey, J.D. (2013). Bones: Structure and Mechanics, Princeton University Press.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Bones will resist, begin to fracture, and eventually fail in accordance with the stress-strain curve.

    “Bones will resist, begin to fracture, and eventually fail in accordance with the stress–strain curve [6].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [6] Kieser, J., Taylor, M., and Carr, D. (2012). Forensic Biomechanics, Wiley. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Such injuries can cause severe bone fragmentation as a result of the instant accumulation and release of massive levels of energy.

    “Such injuries can cause severe bone fragmentation as a result of the instant accumulation and release of massive levels of energy [6].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [6] Kieser, J., Taylor, M., and Carr, D. (2012). Forensic Biomechanics, Wiley. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    GST occurs when high-velocity projectiles penetrate the brittle bone and produce fast-loaded injuries.

    “GST, or ballistic trauma, occurs when high-velocity projectiles penetrate the brittle bone and produce fast-loaded injuries [7].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [7] Rainwater, C.W., and Passalacqua, N.V. (2015). Skeletal Trauma Analysis: Case Studies in Context, John Wiley & Sons. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    In BFT, the ductile bone fails in response to contact with broad or blunt surfaced objects at a low to medium velocity.

    “In BFT, the ductile bone fails in response to contact with broad or blunt surfaced objects at a low to medium velocity [7].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [7] Rainwater, C.W., and Passalacqua, N.V. (2015). Skeletal Trauma Analysis: Case Studies in Context, John Wiley & Sons. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In GST, a stress wave travels through bone at the speed of sound due to impulsive loading, initiating and propagating several MCKs with increased velocity.

    “In GST, a stress wave goes through the bone at the speed of sound due to the impulsive loading, which in turn initiates and propagates several MCKs with increased velocity [29].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [29] Martin, R.B., Burr, D.B., Sharkey, N.A., and Fyhrie, D.P. (2015). Skeletal Tissue Mechanics, Springer. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In BFT, bones are stronger in compression, with the tension side being the weakest and failing first.

    “These findings are in agreement with the fact that in BFT we see bending where bones are said to be stronger in compression, with the tension side being the weakest and failing first [13,30].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [13] Currey, J.D. (2013). Bones: Structure and Mechanics, Princeton University Press.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [30] Christensen, 2021, Forensic Fractography of Bone: Fracture Origins from Impacts, and an Improved Understanding of the Failure Mechanism Involved in Beveling, Forensic Anthropol. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    So far, there has not been a focus on osteonal microcracking patterns in relation to trauma type but only literature on BFT cases and trauma timing.

    “So far, there has not been a focus on osteonal microcracking patterns in relation to trauma type but only literature on BFT cases and trauma timing [14,15,16].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [14] Porta, 2011, Distinguishing between Perimortem and Postmortem Fractures: Are Osteons of Any Help?, Int. J. Leg. Med. source
    • cites [15] Schwab, 2022, Microcracking Pattern in Fractured Bones: New Approach for Distinguishing between Peri- and Postmortem Fractures, Int. J. Leg. Med.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [16] Schwab, N., Galtés, I., Winter-Buchwalder, M., Ortega-Sánchez, M., and Jordana, X. (2023). Osteonal Microcracking Pattern: A Potential Vitality Marker in Human Bone Trauma. Biology, 12. source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Two control samples were added to assess the possibility of processes such as freezing and boiling or histological procedure forming osteonal microdamage.

    “Two control samples were added to assess the possibility of processes such as freezing and boiling or histological procedure forming osteonal microdamage.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The intra- and inter-rater reliabilities were evaluated using the Wilcoxon signed-rank test and the intra-class correlation (absolute agreement) test.

    “The intra- and inter-rater reliabilities were evaluated using the Wilcoxon signed-rank test and the intra-class correlation (absolute agreement) test.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In BFT, bone behaves as a ductile material and is elastic and flexible, allowing more energy to be transferred to the stretch mechanism, resulting in less damage compared to GST samples.

    “In BFT, bone behaves as a ductile material and is elastic and flexible allowing for more energy to be transferred to the stretch mechanism, resulting in less damage compared to the GST samples [6].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [6] Kieser, J., Taylor, M., and Carr, D. (2012). Forensic Biomechanics, Wiley. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    MCKs in densely damaged areas eventually coalesce to form fracture lines.

    “Although our study differed by considering MCKs in terms of osteonal damage and not fracture lines, MCKs in densely damaged areas eventually coalesce to form fracture lines [33,34].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [33] Reilly, 2000, The Effects of Damage and Microcracking on the Impact Strength of Bone, J. Biomech. source
    • cites [34] Ramasamy, 2011, Blast-Related Fracture Patterns: A Forensic Biomechanical Approach, J. R. Soc. Interface source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Unlike BFT, where elastic deformation is followed by plastic deformation and eventual bone failure, viscoelastic bone in response to the high velocity of bullets acts as a brittle material and fails upon contact.

    “However, unlike BFT, where elastic deformation is followed by plastic deformation and eventual bone failure; viscoelastic bone in response to the high velocity of bullets acts as a brittle material and fails upon contact [6,8].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [6] Kieser, J., Taylor, M., and Carr, D. (2012). Forensic Biomechanics, Wiley. source
    • cites [8] Berryman, 1998, Recognizing Gunshot and Blunt Cranial Trauma through Fracture Interpretation, Forensic Osteol. Adv. Identif. Hum. Remain.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The possibility of histological techniques contributing significantly to MCK propagation was previously ruled out.

    “Previously, the possibility of histological techniques contributing significantly to MCK propagation was ruled out [15].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [15] Schwab, 2022, Microcracking Pattern in Fractured Bones: New Approach for Distinguishing between Peri- and Postmortem Fractures, Int. J. Leg. Med.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The principle factor in the bone's resistance to fracture is its toughness, in other words, the bone's ability to resist crack propagation at multiple hierarchical levels.

    “The principle factor in the bone’s resistance to fracture is its toughness, in other words, the bone’s ability to resist crack propagation at multiple hierarchical levels [6,12].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [6] Kieser, J., Taylor, M., and Carr, D. (2012). Forensic Biomechanics, Wiley. source
    • cites [12] Ebacher, 2012, Sub-Lamellar Microcracking and Roles of Canaliculi in Human Cortical Bone, Acta Biomater. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    A prevalence of OD type 1 would be indicative of BFT, and a prevalence of OD types 3 and 4 would be characteristic of GST.

    “As found in this study, a prevalence of OD type 1 would be indicative of BFT and a prevalence of OD types 3 and 4 would be characteristic of GST.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The reported osteonal damage differences may be of value when exploring trauma type in forensic anthropology.

    “Therefore, the reported osteonal damage differences may be of value when exploring trauma type in forensic anthropology.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The prevalent OD types 1 and 4 in BFT_dry experimental align with BFT and dry bone characteristics, respectively.

    “Together, the prevalent OD types 1 and 4 in BFT_dry experimental align with BFT and dry bone characteristics, respectively.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    OD type 4 is an indicator of bone behaving as a brittle material, as expected with the rapid loading rate in GST cases and with the dry nature of BFT_dry experimental.

    “Perhaps, OD type 4 is therefore an indicator of bone behaving as a brittle material as is expected with the rapid loading rate in the GST cases and with the dry nature of BFT_dry experimental, preventing the bone from withstanding as much strain or elastic deformation [6].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [6] Kieser, J., Taylor, M., and Carr, D. (2012). Forensic Biomechanics, Wiley. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The destructive nature of histological analysis is another limitation in a forensic context.

    “Another limitation to consider in a forensic context is the destructive nature of the histological analysis.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    There are distinct osteonal damage patterns in human long bones with GST and BFT, and in fresh peri-mortem trauma and in post-mortem damage.

    “Overall, we can conclude that there are distinct osteonal damage patterns in human long bones with GST and BFT, and in fresh peri-mortem trauma and in post-mortem damage.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
45 of 45

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Specific fracture patterns result from different mechanical impacts.

    “based on the assumption that specific fracture patterns result from different mechanical impacts [4].”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Bones are more resistant and reliable in cases impacted by taphonomical factors and may present an important permanent record of trauma evidence.

    “Bones, however, are more resistant and reliable in cases impacted by such taphonomical factors and may present an important permanent record of trauma evidence in bones that are affected.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The samples classified as GST_mass grave sustained gunshot trauma during life.

    “When it comes to differences between GST samples, the OD type pattern present in the traumatic death cases from a mass grave of the Spanish Civil War and the experimentally reproduced GST case are similar.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The BFT_autopsy cases sustained blunt force trauma.

    “A potential explanation for this may be impact-related nature of the BFT_autopsy cases, consisting of traffic accidents and falls, which transfers more kinetic energy, involves triaxial stress states and multiple high impact points on the bone, unlike a fracture caused by a relatively simple three-point bend [16,30].”
4 of 4

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 2

  1. Berryman, 1998, Recognizing Gunshot and Blunt Cranial Trauma through Fracture Interpretation, Forensic Osteol. Adv. Identif. Hum. Remain., 2, 333
  2. Ferrara, S.D. (2017). P5 Medicine and Justice: Innovation, Unitariness and Evidence, Springer International Publishing.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Sexton, K., Schwab, N., Galtés, I., Casas, A., Armentano, N., Brillas, P., Garrido, X., & Jordana, X.
Affiliations
  • University of Amsterdam (NL)
  • Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (ES)
  • Biological Anthropology Unit, Department of Animal Biology, Plant Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Biosciences, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), 08193 Bellaterra, Catalonia, Spain
  • Hospital Clínic de Barcelona (ES)
  • Generalitat de Catalunya (ES)
Corresponding author
Jordana, Xavier
ORCID
Venue
Life
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2024-02-03
Volume
14
Issue
2
Pages
220
ISSN
2075-1729 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3390/life14020220
PMC
PMC10890644
OpenAlex
W4391540187
Semantic Scholar
6fbca4da02cb1e5ea0feb85fef928f72095ee042
Cited by
8
References
38
Citations by year
2026: 5 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 1
FWCI
13.47
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Life (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Preprints.org (acceptedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Dipòsit Digital de Documents de la UAB (Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
Funders
Proyectos de Generación de Conocimiento, Agencia Estatal de Investigación (PID2021-124112NB-100)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology › Forensic Anthropology and Bioarchaeology Studies
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Radiology, Nuclear Medicine and Imaging › Autopsy Techniques and Outcomes
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Bone fractures and treatments
Keywords
osteons, long bones, blunt trauma, Haversian canals, cement lines, traumatic death, fracture biomechanics

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-11-06.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-11-06.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

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