The DOI matches its Crossref record; 195 of the 197 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 340 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Effects of Coffee on the Gastro-Intestinal Tract: A Narrative Review and Literature Update
Open accessAbstract
The objective of the present research was to review the state of the art on the consequences of drinking coffee at the different levels of the gastrointestinal tract. At some steps of the digestive process, the effects of coffee consumption seem rather clear. This is the case for the stimulation of gastric acid secretion, the stimulation of biliary and pancreatic secretion, the reduction of gallstone risk, the stimulation of colic motility, and changes in the composition of gut microbiota. Other aspects are still controversial, such as the possibility for coffee to affect gastro-esophageal reflux, peptic ulcers, and intestinal inflammatory diseases. This review also includes a brief summary on the lack of association between coffee consumption and cancer of the different digestive organs, and points to the powerful protective effect of coffee against the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma. This review reports the available evidence on different topics and identifies the areas that would most benefit from additional studies.
Overview
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TL;DR
This narrative review updates evidence on coffee’s effects across the gastrointestinal tract, finding clear stimulation of gastric acid, biliary and pancreatic secretion, reduced gallstone risk, stimulated colonic motility, and altered gut microbiota, while effects on GERD, peptic ulcers, and IBD remain controversial. It reports no consistent deleterious digestive effects and a strong protective association with hepatocellular carcinoma, but calls for prospective studies because much evidence is old and heterogeneous.
Key findings
- Coffee stimulates salivary alpha-amylase, gastric acid and gastrin secretion, and biliary/pancreatic secretion, but does not accelerate gastric emptying; one study found gastric emptying half-time reduced to 154 min with caffeine versus 182 min for control.
- For gallstones, a meta-analysis of 227,749 participants and 11,477 cases found prospective cohort coffee intake associated with a 17% risk reduction (RR = 0.83; 95% CI = 0.76–0.89), only in women; dose-response reductions were 5% for 1 cup/day, 11% for 2 cups/day, 19% for 4 cups/day, and 25% for 6 cups/day.
- For postoperative ileus, five meta-analyses found coffee reduced time to first flatus by 3.6–10 h, first bowel sound by 3.3–12.09 h, first defecation by 9.4–16.1 h, tolerance of solid food by 9.5–17.1 h (except one study reporting 1.3 h), and hospital stay by 0.74–3.18 days; the most recent meta-analysis of 13 trials and 1246 patients reported reduced postoperative ileus (RR = 0.42; 95% CI = 0.26–0.69).
- For GERD, meta-analyses found no overall association (OR = 1.06; 95% CI = 0.94–1.19; RR = 1.07; 95% CI = 0.96–1.19), but the review counted 15 studies with no association, 2 with protective effects, and 11 with aggravating effects; for liver cancer, a meta-analysis of 12 prospective cohorts and 3414 cases found summary RRs of 0.66 (95% CI = 0.55–0.78) for regular, 0.78 (95% CI = 0.66–0.91) for low, and 0.50 (95% CI = 0.43–0.58) for high coffee consumption, with each additional cup reducing risk by 15%.
Methods
- Narrative review and literature update synthesizing published human, animal, and in vitro studies, meta-analyses, randomized controlled trials, cohort studies, and case-control studies on coffee and the gastrointestinal tract.
- Data include, for example, a gallstone meta-analysis of 227,749 participants and 11,477 cases, postoperative ileus meta-analyses of 4–13 RCTs, and a UK Biobank study of 348,818 coffee consumers and 109,767 non-consumers.
- Main analysis is narrative synthesis, with tables summarizing studies on GERD, gallstones, and postoperative ileus; no systematic search strategy, inclusion criteria, or quantitative pooling by the author is described.
Limitations
- The paper states that research on coffee and the gastrointestinal tract remains scarce, many data are old, and findings are heterogeneous because coffee type, origin, roasting, processing, concentration, and preparation vary widely.
- The paper notes that most GERD studies were cross-sectional rather than prospective, questionnaires were not always validated, endoscopy was often absent, and coffee was often consumed with or after meals.
- Evident from the text: as a narrative review, it does not report a systematic search, formal study selection, risk-of-bias assessment, or meta-analytic methods of its own, so conclusions depend on selected evidence and author interpretation.
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In the paper
“The lack of complications from coffee was reported by all authors.”
§ Effects of Coffee on the Gastro-Intestinal Tract: A Narrative Review and Literature Update > 7. Increase in Colic Motility and Anti-Inflammatory Action > 7.2. Effects of Coffee after Abdominal Surgery
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Among those studies, four studies did not report any association between coffee consumption and the risk of gallstone formation [91,93,94,98].”
§ Effects of Coffee on the Gastro-Intestinal Tract: A Narrative Review and Literature Update > 6. Coffee Consumption Reduces Gallbladder Stone Formation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [91] Negri, 1991, Risk factors for gallstone disease requiring surgery, Int. J. Epidemiol. source
- Not checked yetcites [93] Kratzer, 1997, Gallstone prevalence in relation to smoking, alcohol, coffee consumption, and nutrition. The Ulm Gallstone Study, Scand. J. Gastroenterol. source
- Not checked yetcites [94] Sahi, 1998, Body mass index, cigarette smoking, and other characteristics as predictors of self-reported, physician-diagnosed gallbladder disease in male college alumni, Am. J. Epidemiol. source
- Not checked yetcites [98] Ishizuka, 2003, Relation of coffee, green tea, and caffeine intake to gallstone disease in middle-aged Japanese men, Eur. J. Epidemiol. source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The time before first defecation was significantly affected, with reductions ranging from 9.4 to 16.1 h in the coffee group compared to controls.”
§ Effects of Coffee on the Gastro-Intestinal Tract: A Narrative Review and Literature Update > 7. Increase in Colic Motility and Anti-Inflammatory Action > 7.2. Effects of Coffee after Abdominal Surgery
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In the five meta-analyses, the time to first flatus was decreased by 3.6 to 10 h.”
§ Effects of Coffee on the Gastro-Intestinal Tract: A Narrative Review and Literature Update > 7. Increase in Colic Motility and Anti-Inflammatory Action > 7.2. Effects of Coffee after Abdominal Surgery
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Similar data were found in several single studies [118,119,120,121,122,123].”
§ Effects of Coffee on the Gastro-Intestinal Tract: A Narrative Review and Literature Update > 7. Increase in Colic Motility and Anti-Inflammatory Action > 7.2. Effects of Coffee after Abdominal Surgery
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [118] Rahbari, 2012, Randomized clinical trial on the effect of coffee on postoperative ileus following elective colectomy, Br. J. Surg. source
A check is scheduled.
- Not checked yetcites [119] Rahbari, 2013, Can postoperative coffee perk up recovery time after colon surgery?, Expert Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. source
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- Not checked yetcites [120] Dulskas, 2015, Effect of coffee on the length of postoperative ileus after elective laparoscopic left-sided colectomy: A randomized, prospective single-center study, Dis. Colon Rectum source
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- Not checked yetcites [121] Sanci, 2017, Effects of coffee consumption on gut recovery after surgery of gynecological cancer patients: A randomized controlled trial, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. source
A check is scheduled.
- Not checked yetcites [122] Piric, 2015, The effects of drinking coffee while recovering from colon and rectal resection surgery, Med. Arch. source
A check is scheduled.
- Not checked yetcites [123] Rabiepoor, 2018, Does coffee affect the bowel function after caesarean section?, Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol. source
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plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated major: it would touch a result — a value a result rests on, reported and recomputed p-values on opposite sides of the significance level, two passages that conflict with no sign which is right, or a cited work retracted before this paper was published.
In the paper
§ Effects of Coffee on the Gastro-Intestinal Tract: A Narrative Review and Literature Update > 10. Conclusions
“Coffee consumption has not been reported to generate any deleterious effects on the various organs of the digestive tract”
§ Effects of Coffee on the Gastro-Intestinal Tract: A Narrative Review and Literature Update > 9. Coffee and Cancer of the Gastrointestinal Tract > 9.2. Cancer of the Stomach and Pancreas
“A high consumption of ≥7 cups of coffee daily increased the risk of stomach cancer by 20%.”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Effects of Coffee on the Gastro-Intestinal Tract: A Narrative Review and Literature Update > 6. Coffee Consumption Reduces Gallbladder Stone Formation
“the RR of gallstone disease was 5% for the consumption of 1 cup/day of coffee compared to low levels.”
§ Effects of Coffee on the Gastro-Intestinal Tract: A Narrative Review and Literature Update > 6. Coffee Consumption Reduces Gallbladder Stone Formation
“The risk reduction increases with coffee dosage in a non-linear manner, 5% for 1 cup/day”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Effects of Coffee on the Gastro-Intestinal Tract: A Narrative Review and Literature Update > 4. Risk of Gastro-Esophageal Pathology > 4.2. Gastro-Esophageal Reflux (GERD)
“A US study on 317 GERD patients and 182 asymptomatic controls found that risk factors for GERD were the consumption of soft drinks and tea [56].”
§ Effects of Coffee on the Gastro-Intestinal Tract: A Narrative Review and Literature Update > 4. Risk of Gastro-Esophageal Pathology > 4.3. Risk of Peptic Ulcers
“A Japanese cross-sectional study [56] found no effect of coffee consumption on any gastric related disease”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Effects of Coffee on the Gastro-Intestinal Tract: A Narrative Review and Literature Update > 9. Coffee and Cancer of the Gastrointestinal Tract > 9.1. Cancer of the Oral Cavity and Esophagus
“The preferred temperature for the consumption of coffee has been found to be 60 ± 8.3 °C, while the optimum temperature safe for the esophageal mucosa is considered as being 57.8 °C [167].”
§ Effects of Coffee on the Gastro-Intestinal Tract: A Narrative Review and Literature Update > 9. Coffee and Cancer of the Gastrointestinal Tract > 9.1. Cancer of the Oral Cavity and Esophagus
“Hence, the usual temperature of coffee consumption is lower than the temperature leading to burns and lesions of the esophageal mucosa with potential evolution to cancer [168].”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Effects of Coffee on the Gastro-Intestinal Tract: A Narrative Review and Literature Update > 6. Coffee Consumption Reduces Gallbladder Stone Formation
“In the first study [98], the authors reported a 9–13% risk decrease in all women and a 22–24% risk decrease in women with previously diagnosed gallbladder disease”
§ Effects of Coffee on the Gastro-Intestinal Tract: A Narrative Review and Literature Update > References
“98. Ishizuka H. Eguchi H. Oda T. Ogawa S. Nakagawa K. Honjo S. Kono S. Relation of coffee, green tea, and caffeine intake to gallstone disease in middle-aged Japanese men”
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Citations
Cites
A human gut microbial gene catalogue established by metagenomic sequencing
MetaHIT Consortium, Qin, J., Li, R., Raes, J., Arumugam, M., Burgdorf, K. S., Manichanh, C., Nielsen, T., Pons, N., Levenez, F., et al. (2010) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature08821 · Cited by 11,624
Enterotypes of the human gut microbiome
MetaHIT Consortium (additional members), Arumugam, M., Raes, J., Pelletier, E., Le Paslier, D., Yamada, T., Mende, D. R., Fernandes, G. R., Tap, J., Bruls, T., et al. (2011) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature09944 · Cited by 7,548
Microbial co-occurrence relationships in the human microbiome
Faust, K., Sathirapongsasuti, J. F., Izard, J., Segata, N., Gevers, D., Raes, J., & Huttenhower, C. (2012) · PLoS Computational Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1002606 · Cited by 1,527
Epidemiology of Gallbladder Disease: Cholelithiasis and Cancer
Stinton, L. M., & Shaffer, E. A. (2012) · Gut and Liver · doi:10.5009/gnl.2012.6.2.172 · Cited by 1,381
Nater, U. M., & Rohleder, N. (2009) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2009.01.014 · Cited by 1,370
Forsyth, C. B., Shannon, K. M., Kordower, J. H., Voigt, R. M., Shaikh, M., Jaglin, J. A., Estes, J. D., Dodiya, H. B., & Keshavarzian, A. (2011) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0028032 · Cited by 974
Global prevalence of, and risk factors for, gastro-oesophageal reflux symptoms: A meta-analysis
Eusebi, L. H., Ratnakumaran, R., Yuan, Y., Solaymani-Dodaran, M., Bazzoli, F., & Ford, A. C. (2018) · Gut · doi:10.1136/gutjnl-2016-313589 · Cited by 704
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Effect of psychological stress on the salivary cortisol and amylase levels in healthy young adults
Takai, N., Yamaguchi, M., Aragaki, T., Eto, K., Uchihashi, K., & Nishikawa, Y. (2004) · Archives of Oral Biology · doi:10.1016/j.archoralbio.2004.06.007 · Cited by 568 · cited 1×
“sAA measurement is currently used also as an index for soothing/relaxation [3] and as a marker of the stress response [4].”
BackgroundFood-Related gastrointestinal symptoms in the irritable bowel syndrome
Simrén, M., Månsson, A., Langkilde, A. M., Svedlund, J., Abrahamsson, H., Bengtsson, U., & Björnsson, E. S. (2001) · Digestion · doi:10.1159/000051878 · Cited by 529
Research works printed but not linked: 2
- Schafmayer, 1976, Der Einfluss von Kaffee und Coffein auf den Serumgastrinspiegel und die Süresekretion beim Menschen, Dtsch. Med. Wochenschr., 101, 455
- Boekema, 1999, Coffee and gastrointestinal function: Facts and fiction, Scand. J. Gastroenterol., 99, 35
Cited by
The Development and Evaluation of a Literature-Based Dietary Index for Gut Microbiota
Kase, B. E., Liese, A. D., Zhang, J., Murphy, E. A., Zhao, L., & Steck, S. E. (2024) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu16071045 · Cited by 221
Pharmacology of caffeine and its effects on the human body
Reddy, V. S., Shiva, S. M., Manikantan, S., & Ramakrishna, S. (2024) · European Journal of Medicinal Chemistry Reports · doi:10.1016/j.ejmcr.2024.100138 · Cited by 176
Exploring the gut microbiota: lifestyle choices, disease associations, and personal genomics
Matute, S. P., & Iyavoo, S. (2023) · Frontiers in Nutrition · doi:10.3389/fnut.2023.1225120 · Cited by 144
The Potential of Spent Coffee Grounds in Functional Food Development
Bevilacqua, E., Cruzat, V. F., Singh, I., Rose’Meyer, R. B., Panchal, S. K., & Brown, L. (2023) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu15040994 · Cited by 121
Health Benefits of Coffee Consumption for Cancer and Other Diseases and Mechanisms of Action
Safe, S. H., Kothari, J., Hailemariam, A., Upadhyay, S., Davidson, L. A., & Chapkin, R. S. (2023) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms24032706 · Cited by 88
Metadata
- Authors
- Nehlig, A.
- Affiliations
- Inserm (FR)
- Corresponding author
- Nehlig, Astrid
- ORCID
- Nehlig, Astrid
- Venue
- Nutrients
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2022-01-17
- Volume
- 14
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 399
- ISSN
- 2072-6643 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC8778943
- OpenAlex
- W4205443062
- Cited by
- 158
- References
- 197
- Citations by year
- 2026: 39 · 2025: 43 · 2024: 49 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 8
- FWCI
- 3.50
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Nutrients (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- Technische Universität Kaiserslautern
- Universidade de Coimbra
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pharmacology (medical) › Coffee research and impacts
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Gut microbiota and health
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Gastroenterology › Gastrointestinal motility and disorders
- Keywords
- coffee consumption, gastrointestinal tract, gastric acid secretion, bile secretion, pancreatic secretion, gallstone risk, colonic motility, gut microbiota, gastroesophageal reflux, peptic ulcer, intestinal inflammatory diseases, hepatocellular carcinoma, protective effect
- MeSH terms
- Gastrointestinal Microbiome, Bile, Caffeine, Coffee, Female, Gastric Acid, Gastroesophageal Reflux, Gastrointestinal Motility, Gastrointestinal Neoplasms, Humans, Male, Pancreas, Peptic Ulcer, Saliva, Inflammatory Bowel Diseases, Gastrointestinal Tract, Gallstones
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