Effect of psychological stress on the salivary cortisol and amylase levels in healthy young adults
Abstract
Objective Saliva sampling has the advantage that it is non-invasive, making multiple sampling easy and stress free. We examined the effects of psychological stressor and soother on the salivary cortisol and amylase levels in young adults, and compared the characteristics of these parameters.Design The subjects completed the trait version of State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) to assess the predisposition to personal anxiety. The video of corneal transplant surgery was served as the stressor for 15 min. A scenic beauty video viewing was also used as the soother. Unstimulated whole saliva was collected every 3 min throughout the session.Results The amylase level was significantly increased just after the beginning of the stressful video viewing, and immediately returned to the pre-stress level just after the end of the video viewing. The cortisol level was also increased, but to a lesser extent compared with that of amylase. The latency time to the peak level for cortisol was longer than that of amylase. The carry-over effect was not observed in the amylase response but was in cortisol. Although the correlation between the amylase level and the STAI score was highly significant, cortisol level did not. In addition, soothing video viewing significantly decreased the amylase level, but did not affect the cortisol level.Conclusion Salivary amylase level was more significantly increased and reacted more rapidly than cortisol by psychological stressor, suggesting that it is a better index of stress. Furthermore, it is suggested that the enzyme is a soothing or relaxation index.
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sAA is a convenient marker, easily collected and measured in saliva, and is recognized as both a soothing/relaxation index and a stress response marker.
“sAA is a convenient marker and is easily collected and measured in saliva [36, 42–44]; it is recognized as both a soothing/relaxation index [45] and a stress response marker [36].”
From Acute Effects of Coffee Consumption on Self-Reported Gastrointestinal Symptoms, Blood Pressure and Stress Indices in Healthy Individuals (2015) · cites this paper as [45]
When there is no parallel activation of cortisol, increased sAA activity may also indicate that the enzyme is a soothing or relaxation index.
“However, when there is no parallel activation of cortisol, increased sAA activity may also indicate that the enzyme is a soothing or relaxation index [45].”
From Acute Effects of Coffee Consumption on Self-Reported Gastrointestinal Symptoms, Blood Pressure and Stress Indices in Healthy Individuals (2015) · cites this paper as [45]
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ResultSchoofs, D., & Wolf, O. T. (2011) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2011.01.008 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Prefrontal Cortex Activity Is Associated with Biobehavioral Components of the Stress Response
Wheelock, M. D., Harnett, N. G., Wood, K. H., Orem, T. R., Granger, D. A., Mrug, S., & Knight, D. C. (2016) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2016.00583 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Valentin, B., Grottke, O., Skorning, M. H., Bergrath, S., Fischermann, H., Rörtgen, D., Mennig, M.-T., Fitzner, C., Müller, M. P., Kirschbaum, C., et al. (2015) · Scandinavian Journal of Trauma Resuscitation and Emergency Medicine · doi:10.1186/s13049-015-0110-6 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
“Cortisol is a corticosteroid hormone with an influence on memory consolidation in humans [27]; it reacts and recovers less quickly than alpha-amylase [16].”
BackgroundAsymmetric split-ring resonator-based biosensor for detection of label-free stress biomarkers
Lee, H., Lee, J., Choi, S., Jang, I., Choi, J.-S., & Jung, H. (2013) · Applied Physics Letters · doi:10.1063/1.4816440 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Wetherell, M. A., Crown, A. L., Lightman, S. L., Miles, J. N. V., Kaye, J. M., & Vedhara, K. (2006) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2006.02.005 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
The Role of Saliva Cortisol Measurement in Health and Disease
Karlson, B., Lindfors, P., Riva, R., Theorell, T., Lundberg, U., & Mellner, C. (2012) · BENTHAM SCIENCE PUBLISHERS eBooks · doi:10.2174/97816080534211120101 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
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“lish changes in salivary flow caused by experimental stressors like presenting a public talk [16] or watching a surgical video [17].”
Bitsika, V., Sharpley, C. F., Sweeney, J. A., & McFarlane, J. R. (2014) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2013.12.011 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Smartphone-based point-of-care testing of salivary α-amylase for personal psychological measurement.
Zhang, L., Yang, W.-T., Yang, Y.-K., Liu, H., & Gu, Z.-Z. (2015) · In Analysis · doi:10.1039/c5an01664a · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Ignacio, J., Dolmans, D. H. J. M., Scherpbier, A. J. J. A., Rethans, J., Chan, S. W., & Liaw, S. Y. (2015) · Nurse Education Today · doi:10.1016/j.nedt.2015.05.009 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
“Amylase, however, reacts more rapidly to a psychological stressor compared to cortisol with no carry-over effect (Takai et al., 2004).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSurgeons' and surgical trainees' acute stress in real operations or simulation: A systematic review
Georgiou, K., Larentzakis, A., & Papavassiliou, A. G. (2017) · The Surgeon · doi:10.1016/j.surge.2017.06.003 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
“acute stress: It seems that sAA responds to stress quicker than sC.(9,99) Additionally, if the concentrations of proteins, such as sAA or sIgA, are to be calculated, the following formula must be used: [protein secretion (U/min) 1⁄4 protein concentration (U/ml) x SFR (ml/min)], with SFR (ml/min) being the sole determi…”
MethodЦубер, В. Ю., Kadamov, Y., & Lm, T. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0115048 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
“(2004) [81] in watching stressful and soothing videos or by Naumova et al.”
BackgroundKline, N., Griner, S. B., Neelamegam, M., Webb, N. J., Morales, J. J., & Rhodes, S. D. (2022) · Sexuality Research and Social Policy · doi:10.1007/s13178-022-00773-0 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
“Future work can also include impact analyses of legislation (Kovacs Burns & Gordon, 2009) and research which examines the biopsychosocial consequences of anti-LGBTQ + policy using approaches such as cortisol samples (Elzinga et al., 2008; Takai et al., 2004) and telomere length (Epel et al.”
BackgroundGarcia, P. D. T., Guimarães, L. N., Dias, A. A., Ulhôa, C. J., & Coltro, W. K. T. (2017) · Sensors and Actuators B Chemical · doi:10.1016/j.snb.2017.11.068 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Tu, M. T., LUPIEN, S. J., & Walker, C. D. (2006) · Journal of Neuroendocrinology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2826.2006.01441.x · Cited by 64 · see citing works
The Inventory of Callous and Unemotional Traits
Berg, J. M., Lilienfeld, S. O., Reddy, S. D., Latzman, R. D., Roose, A., Craighead, L. W., Pace, T. W. W., & Raison, C. L. (2013) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/1073191112474338 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
“In addition to self-report measures of anxiety, we examined physiological measures of stress, including cortisol, alpha-amylase, and C-reactive protein, all of which have been implicated in increased levels of physiological stress, which are ostensibly negatively associated with unemotional traits (e.g., Owen, Poulton…”
MethodOral carbohydrate sensing: Beyond sweet taste
Lim, J., & Pullicin, A. J. (2019) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2019.01.021 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
A review: metamaterial sensors for material characterization
Vivek, A., Shambavi, K., & Alex, Z. C. (2018) · Sensor Review · doi:10.1108/sr-06-2018-0152 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Salivary Cortisol, Salivary Alpha Amylase, and the Dental Anxiety Scale
Sadi, H., Finkelman, M., & ROSENBERG, M. B. (2013) · Anesthesia Progress · doi:10.2344/0003-3006-60.2.46 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
“It was demonstrated in the past that salivary cortisol increases in response to stress and anxiety, and that it also presents an easy, noninvasive way of measuring stress.(20) Cortisol levels in the saliva have been shown to be higher in patients with oral lichen planus.”
BackgroundOral bio-interfaces: Properties and functional roles of salivary multilayer in food oral processing
Mu, R., & Chen, J. (2023) · Trends in Food Science & Technology · doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2023.01.003 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Diurnal alpha amylase patterns in adolescents: Associations with puberty and momentary mood states
Adam, E. K., Hoyt, L. T., & Granger, D. A. (2011) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2011.07.007 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“Although sAA levels both increase and recover in response to stress more quickly than cortisol (Granger, et al., 2007; Takai et al., 2004), naturally occurring mood states are likely to be less transient than experimentally manipulated mood states, and should therefore still be reflected in sAA levels in the 20-minute…”
BackgroundPerroni, F., Tessitore, A., Cibelli, G., Lupo, C., D'Artibale, E., Cortis, C., Cignitti, L., Rosas, M. D., & Capranica, L. (2009) · Ergonomics · doi:10.1080/00140130802707873 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Monteleone, P., Scognamiglio, P., Canestrelli, B., Serino, I., Monteleone, A. M., & Maj, M. (2011) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291711000092 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
“This is consistent with the reported faster reactivity of the autonomic nervous system relative to the HPA axis (Takai et al. 2004).”
ResultPapakonstantinou, E., Kechribari, I., Sotirakoglou, Κ., Tarantilis, P., Gourdomichali, T., Michas, G., Kravvariti, V., Voumvourakis, K., & Zampelas, A. (2015) · Nutrition Journal · doi:10.1186/s12937-016-0146-0 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“05 were considered as significant (1)Score of the Zung self-reported anxiety scale questionnaire (20–80) (Reference [45]) (2)P describes differences between coffee types at a specific time point (3)P describes differences between time points for every coffee type Papakonstantinou et al.”
BackgroundMatos-Gomes, N., Katsurayama, M., Makimoto, F. H., Santana, L. L. O., Paredes-Garcia, E., Becker, M. A. D., & Dos‐Santos, M. C. (2010) · NeuroImmunoModulation · doi:10.1159/000292064 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Wagner, J., Cik, M., Marth, E., Santner, B., Gallasch, E., Lackner, A., & Raggam, R. (2010) · International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health · doi:10.1016/j.ijheh.2009.08.004 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Pilvenyte, G., Ratautaitė, V., Bogužaitė, R., Samukaitė-Bubnienė, U., Plaušinaitis, D., Ramanavičienė, A., Bechelany, M., & Ramanavičius, A. (2023) · Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis · doi:10.1016/j.jpba.2023.115343 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Prenatal Cocaine Exposure Related to Cortisol Stress Reactivity in 11-Year-Old Children
Lester, B. M., LaGasse, L. L., Shankaran, S., Bada, H. S., Bauer, C. R., Lin, R., Das, A., & Higgins, R. D. (2010) · The Journal of Pediatrics · doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2010.02.039 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“We also collected information on steroid medications, [38] time of last meal or beverage including dairy or caffeine [39] and vigorous physical exercise.”
Ko, C. M., Grace, F., Chavez, G. N., Grimley, S. J., Dalrymple, E. R., & Olson, L. E. (2018) · Journal of American College Health · doi:10.1080/07448481.2018.1431913 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
O’Leary, M. M., Taylor, J. E., & Eckel, L. A. (2010) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2010.03.009 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“Participants were asked to abstain from exercise, smoking, eating, and consuming caffeinated beverages or alcohol for 2 h prior to the second testing session as these variables can impact cortisol production (Stroud et al., 2002; Takai et al., 2004).”
Nislin, M. A., Sajaniemi, N. K., Sims, M., Suhonen, E., Maldonado, E., Hirvonen, A., & Hyttinen, S. (2015) · European Journal of Special Needs Education · doi:10.1080/08856257.2015.1087127 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“sAA increases during stress and is significantly and directly associated with changes in emotional states (Takai et al. 2004).”
BackgroundSaliva – a new opportunity for fluid biopsy
Huang, Z., Yang, X., Huang, Y., Tang, Z., Chen, Y., Liu, H., Huang, M., Qing, L., Li, L., Wang, Q. L., et al. (2022) · Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine (CCLM) · doi:10.1515/cclm-2022-0793 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Pandit, P., Crewther, B. T., Cook, C. J., Punyadeera, C., & Pandey, A. K. (2024) · Materials Advances · doi:10.1039/d3ma00937h · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Man, I. S. C., Shao, R., Hou, W. K., Li, S. X., Liu, F. Y., Lee, M., Wing, Y. K., Yau, S., & Lee, T. M. C. (2022) · Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2022.101050 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Sugimoto, K., 金井, あ., & Shoji, N. (2009) · BioPsychoSocial Medicine · doi:10.1186/1751-0759-3-5 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“This rate is consistent with that reported in previous studies [2022,24,33,44].”
BackgroundResultThoma, M. V., Joksimovic, L., Kirschbaum, C., Wolf, J. M., & Rohleder, N. (2012) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2011.09.013 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
“healthy participants (Noto et al., 2005; Takai et al., 2004).”
Intimacy in Phone Conversations: Anxiety Reduction for Danish Seniors with Hugvie
Yamazaki, R., Christensen, L. R. L., Skov, K., Chang, C.-C., Damholdt, M. F., Sumioka, H., Nishio, S., & Ishiguro, H. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00537 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
“From a previous study, the cortisol level was increased with a lesser extent compared with that of amylase after participants were exposed to a stressful video (Takai et al., 2004).”
ResultThe impact of short-term adventure-based outdoor programs on college students’ stress reduction
CHANG, Y. S., Davidson, C., Conklin, S., & Ewert, A. (2018) · Journal of Adventure Education & Outdoor Learning · doi:10.1080/14729679.2018.1507831 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“Numerous studies have shown that salivary cortisol is correlated with human body’s stress level (Kirschbaum & Hellhammer, 1994; Takai et al., 2004).”
BackgroundFisher, A. J., Granger, D. A., & Newman, M. G. (2010) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2009.12.007 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
The effects measurement of hand massage by the autonomic activity and psychological indicators
Kunikata, H., Watanabe, K., Miyoshi, M., & Tanioka, T. (2012) · The Journal of Medical Investigation · doi:10.2152/jmi.59.206 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Salivary gland dysfunction markers in type 2 diabetes mellitus patients
Aitken-Saavedra, J., Alcayaga, G. R., Maturana-Ramírez, A., Escobar-Alvarez, A., Cortés-Coloma, A., Rojas, M. R., -Sapiain, V. V., Villablanca-Martinez, C., & Morales‐Bozo, I. (2015) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Dentistry · doi:10.4317/jced.52329 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Early skin-to-skin contact after cesarean section: A randomized clinical pilot study
Kollmann, M., Aldrian, L., Scheuchenegger, A., Mautner, E., Herzog, S., Urlesberger, B., Raggam, R., Lang, U., Obermayer-Pietsch, B., & Klaritsch, P. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0168783 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Stress affects salivary alpha-Amylase activity in bonobos
Behringer, V., Deschner, T., Möstl, E., Selzer, D., & Hohmann, G. (2011) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2011.09.005 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“This disparity might be partly due to the high inter-individual variation in sAA values [14,60].”
BackgroundThe effect of academic stress and attachment stress on stress-eaters and stress-undereaters
Emond, M. H., Eycke, K. T., Kosmerly, S., Robinson, A. L., Stillar, A., & Blyderveen, S. V. (2016) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2016.01.035 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
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A Deep Learning-based Stress Detection Algorithm with Speech Signal
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“Several studies have shown that cortisol secretion increases when stress is applied [16, 17].”
BackgroundShelburne, S. A., Keith, D. B., Davenport, M. T., Horstmann, N., Brennan, R. G., & Musser, J. M. (2008) · Molecular Microbiology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2958.2008.06290.x · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“When indicated, purified human salivary amylase (Sigma) was added to CDM at physiologic concentration (200 U ml-1; Soderling et al., 1993; Takai et al., 2004).”
MethodMental Health Benefits of Breastfeeding: A Literature Review
Tucker, Z., & O'Malley, C. B. (2022) · Cureus · doi:10.7759/cureus.29199 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
“The HPA axis increases cortisol secretion to the adrenal cortex, which ultimately leads to increased anxiety [12].”
BackgroundMcKay, K. A. C., Buen, J. E., Bohan, K. J., & Maye, J. P. (2010) · PubMed · Cited by 47 · see citing works
- Authors
- Takai, N., Yamaguchi, M., Aragaki, T., Eto, K., Uchihashi, K., & Nishikawa, Y.
- Affiliations
- Osaka Dental University (JP)
- University of Toyama (JP)
- Corresponding author
- Takai, Noriyasu
- ORCID
- Yamaguchi, Masaki
- Venue
- Archives of Oral Biology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2004-12
- Volume
- 49
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- 963-968
- ISSN
- 0003-9969 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2108805072
- Cited by
- 568
- References
- 35
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 33 · 2024: 28 · 2023: 28 · 2022: 27 · 2021: 26 · 2020: 26 · 2019: 32 · 2018: 38 · 2017: 37 · 2016: 29 · 2015: 33 · 2014: 31 · 2013: 37 · 2012: 32
- FWCI
- 3.77
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Archives of Oral Biology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Salivary Gland Disorders and Functions
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine › Heart Rate Variability and Autonomic Control
- Keywords
- psychological stress, salivary cortisol, salivary amylase, stress biomarkers, trait anxiety, residual effects, relaxation, young adults
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Amylases, Anxiety, Female, Humans, Hydrocortisone, Male, Psychological Tests, Relaxation, Saliva, Salivary Proteins and Peptides, Stress, Psychological, Time Factors
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