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Dietary Intakes and Supplement Use in Pre-Adolescent and Adolescent Canadian Athletes
Open accessAbstract
Young athletes experience numerous dietary challenges including growth, training/competition, unhealthy food environments, and travel. The objective was to determine nutrient intakes and supplement use in pre-adolescent and adolescent Canadian athletes. Athletes (n = 187) aged 11–18 years completed an on-line 24-h food recall and dietary supplement questionnaire. Median energy intake (interquartile range) varied from 2159 kcal/day (1717–2437) in 11–13 years old females to 2905 kcal/day (2291–3483) in 14–18 years old males. Carbohydrate and protein intakes were 8.1 (6.1–10.5); 2.4 (1.6–3.4) in males 11–13 years, 5.7 (4.5–7.9); 2.0 (1.4–2.6) in females 11–13 years, 5.3 (4.3–7.4); 2.0 (1.5–2.4) in males 14–18 y and 4.9 (4.4–6.2); 1.7 (1.3–2.0) in females 14–18 years g/kg of body weight respectively. Median vitamin D intakes were below the recommended dietary allowance (RDA) and potassium was below the adequate intake (AI) for all athlete groups. Females 14–18 years had intakes below the RDA for iron 91% (72–112), folate 89% (61–114) and calcium 84% (48–106). Multivitamin-multiminerals, vitamin C, vitamin D, vitamin-enriched water, protein powder, sport foods, fatty acids, probiotics, and plant extracts were popular supplements. Canadian pre-adolescent and adolescent athletes could improve their dietary intakes by focusing on food sources of calcium, vitamin D, potassium, iron, and folate. With the exceptions of vitamin D and carbohydrates during long exercise sessions, supplementation is generally unnecessary.
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TL;DR
In 168 Canadian athletes aged 11–18, median energy intakes ranged from 2159 kcal/day in 11–13-year-old females to 2905 kcal/day in 14–18-year-old males, with vitamin D and potassium below recommendations in all groups and iron, folate, and calcium below recommendations in older females. Supplement use was widespread (100% reported some use), but the authors conclude supplementation is generally unnecessary except possibly vitamin D and carbohydrates during long exercise sessions.
Key findings
- Median energy intake varied from 2159 kcal/day (1717–2437) in 11–13-year-old females to 2905 kcal/day (2291–3483) in 14–18-year-old males. Carbohydrate and protein intakes were 8.1 (6.1–10.5) and 2.4 (1.6–3.4) g/kg body weight in males 11–13 years; 5.7 (4.5–7.9) and 2.0 (1.4–2.6) in females 11–13 years; 5.3 (4.3–7.4) and 2.0 (1.5–2.4) in males 14–18 years; and 4.9 (4.4–6.2) and 1.7 (1.3–2.0) in females 14–18 years.
- Median vitamin D intakes were below the RDA and potassium was below the AI for all athlete groups. Females 14–18 years had intakes below the RDA for iron 91% (72–112), folate 89% (61–114), and calcium 84% (48–106). Sodium intakes exceeded the upper limit in 89% of males 11–13 years, 65% of females 11–13 years, 83% of males 14–18 years, and 69% of females 14–18 years.
- Multivitamin-multiminerals, vitamin C, vitamin D, sport bars, and protein powders were the most commonly consumed supplements on a regular basis. Protein powder use increased with age: regular use was 18% in 14–18-year-olds vs. 10% in 11–13-year-olds. No athletes reported regular energy drink use, but occasional use was 27% in 14–18-year-olds vs. 3% in 11–13-year-olds.
Methods
- Male (n = 84) and female (n = 103) athletes aged 11–18 years were recruited from Alberta through sporting communities and the public school system; “athlete” was defined as competing at the city level or higher and training ≥5 h per week. The FBQ was completed by 187 participants, but low-energy reporters were removed, leaving 168 analyzed.
- Participants completed an online 24-h food recall (Food Behaviour Questionnaire) and a dietary supplement questionnaire covering sport foods, vitamin/mineral supplements, fatty acid supplements, plant extracts, probiotics, and ergogenic aids. Nutrient intakes were compared with Dietary Reference Intakes by age/gender; supplement use was quantified as regular, occasional, or never.
- Analyses included Kruskal–Wallis with Dunn’s post-hoc tests, one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni post-hoc comparisons where data were normal, and Pearson’s Chi-squared tests with Cramer’s V; p < 0.05 was considered significant.
Limitations
- Stated: results are based on a single 24-h food recall; there was low reliability for a few dietary supplements (vitamin E, vitamin-enriched water, glutamine, sport drinks, recovery drinks, probiotics, sport gels/gummies, and caffeine pills); physical stages of maturation were not assessed; DRI recommendations are generalized and not specific to individuals or athletic pursuits; multiple comparisons at a 5% significance level mean up to 5% of results could be due to chance; and underreporting may still be present despite removing low-energy reporters.
- Evident: the supplement questionnaire was originally delivered face-to-face, and the electronic format had only fair to moderate agreement for some items; the 24-h recall did not include other sport foods and supplements (except sport drinks) because they could not be linked to the Canadian Nutrient File, so nutrient intakes from those products are not captured.
- Evident: the sample was recruited from one Canadian province and primarily included athletes competing at community/provincial levels, so findings may not generalize to other regions or elite young athletes.
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“Dietary fibre intakes did not meet recommendations”
§ Dietary Intakes and Supplement Use in Pre-Adolescent and Adolescent Canadian Athletes > 4. Discussion > 4.2. Macronutrients
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“Females did not consume the RDA for calcium and older females did not meet the RDA for iron.”
§ Dietary Intakes and Supplement Use in Pre-Adolescent and Adolescent Canadian Athletes > 3. Results > 3.2. Nutrient Intakes
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“18% of males used sport drinks regularly, 69% occasionally and 13% never as compared to females at 7% regularly, 70% occasionally, and 23% never (p = 0.040; V = 0.193).”
§ Dietary Intakes and Supplement Use in Pre-Adolescent and Adolescent Canadian Athletes > 3. Results > 3.3. Supplements
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“Athletes’ median intakes met or exceeded the RDA for all vitamins with the exception of vitamin D, folate (14–18 years females) and vitamin A (females 11–13 years and males 14–18 years).”
§ Dietary Intakes and Supplement Use in Pre-Adolescent and Adolescent Canadian Athletes > 3. Results > 3.2. Nutrient Intakes
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“Male athletes were also more likely to use sport drinks.”
§ Dietary Intakes and Supplement Use in Pre-Adolescent and Adolescent Canadian Athletes > 4. Discussion > 4.4. Supplements
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In the citing paper
“Vitamin/mineral supplements, sports/protein powders, vitamin waters, creatine and caffeine are commonly identified as popular supplements used by adolescent athletes [88].”
From Youth Athlete Development and Nutrition (2021) · cites this paper as [88]
In the citing paper
“Dietary supplements are mostly unnecessary, considering that it is possible to administer vitamin D and iron supplements under the supervision of a doctor, as mentioned in Table 1 (15).”
From Junior athletes’ nutritional demands: a narrative review of consumption and prevalence of eating disorders (2024) · cites this paper as [15]
In the citing paper
“A study of junior Canadian athletes revealed that 100% of participants consumed some supplements, protein powders, sport bars, multivitamins, multiminerals, vitamin C, and vitamin D, which are the most regularly used supplements (15).”
From Junior athletes’ nutritional demands: a narrative review of consumption and prevalence of eating disorders (2024) · cites this paper as [15]
In the citing paper
“The dietary requirements of young athletes are greater than those of non-athletics. Additionally, increased requirements for high-intensity exercise increase the likelihood of nutrient deficiency (15).”
From Junior athletes’ nutritional demands: a narrative review of consumption and prevalence of eating disorders (2024) · cites this paper as [15]
In the citing paper
“in young athletes, nutrients, such as CHO, may be susceptible to deficiency, especially during activity; magnesium, zinc, iron, calcium, vitamin E, and vitamin D (15).”
From Junior athletes’ nutritional demands: a narrative review of consumption and prevalence of eating disorders (2024) · cites this paper as [15]
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Energy and Macronutrient Considerations for Young Athletes
Hannon, M. P., Close, G. L., & Morton, J. P. (2020) · Strength & Conditioning Journal · doi:10.1519/ssc.0000000000000570 · Cited by 33
Metadata
- Authors
- Parnell, J., Wiens, K., & Erdman, K.
- Affiliations
- Mount Royal University (CA)
- University of Delaware (US)
- University of Calgary (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Parnell, Jill
- ORCID
- Parnell, Jill
- Venue
- Nutrients
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2016-08-26
- Volume
- 8
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- 526
- ISSN
- 2072-6643 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC5037513
- OpenAlex
- W2515555263
- Semantic Scholar
- 5d5c2e40086ae04ab619c2e1cd29d4d97e8dc964
- Cited by
- 73
- References
- 35
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 9 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 11 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 9
- FWCI
- 6.97
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Nutrients (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Library, Museums and Press - UDSpace (University of Delaware) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Mount Royal University Institutional Repository (Mount Royal University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- Canadian Foundation for Dietetic Research
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutrition and Health Studies
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Doping in Sports
- Keywords
- youth athletes, preadolescent athletes, dietary intake, dietary supplements, energy intake, macronutrient intake, micronutrient intake, vitamin D, iron, calcium, potassium, folic acid, protein powder, probiotics
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adolescent Behavior, Age Factors, Alberta, Energy Intake, Child, Child Behavior, Child Development, Diet Surveys, Feeding Behavior, Female, Humans, Male, Nutritional Status, Health Behavior, Nutrition Assessment, Dietary Supplements, Adolescent Development, Athletes, Recommended Dietary Allowances
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-11-14, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-11-14 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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Data sources
Bibliographic data: Semantic Scholar, OpenAlex, Crossref.
Contains information from the Semantic Scholar Academic Graph Datasets, made available under the ODC Attribution License (ODC-BY 1.0).
Semantic Scholar’s data is described in: Kinney, R., et al. (2023). The Semantic Scholar Open Data Platform. arXiv:2301.10140.
